Taigong Wang, also known as Lü Shang, was a man from the eastern shores of the Sea of the East. His ancestors had served as high-ranking officials, known as the Four Yue, and had assisted Emperor Yu of the Xia dynasty in controlling floods and managing the land. During the reigns of Emperor Shun and Emperor Yu, the Lü family was granted land in Lü, and some were later awarded land in Shen. Their surname was Jiang. Throughout the Xia and Shang dynasties, some descendants of the Lü family were granted titles, while others fell into obscurity. Lü Shang was a distant descendant of this illustrious family. Although his surname was originally Jiang, he adopted the name Lü in honor of the land he was granted, hence the name Lü Shang.
Lü Shang once lived in poverty. In his later years, he took up fishing as a means to meet Duke of Zhou (Xi Bo). Before embarking on a hunting trip, the Duke of Zhou consulted an oracle. The oracle’s reading stated, “The game caught will neither be a dragon nor a snake, neither a tiger nor a bear; what is caught will be a minister who will assist in achieving the supremacy of a king.” After the hunt, the Duke of Zhou, to his great surprise, met Lü Shang on the banks of the Wei River. Upon conversing with Lü Shang, the Duke of Zhou was overjoyed and said, “Since our ancestor, the Duke of Zhou, predicted that a sage would come to Zhou, bringing prosperity to the state, it must be you! Our ancestor has long awaited your arrival.” Thus, Lü Shang was given the title “Taigong Wang” (Great Duke Wang). The two returned together to the Zhou court, where Lü Shang was honored as Grand Mentor.
Some accounts suggest that Taigong Wang was highly learned and had once served the Shang king, Zhou. However, because of the tyrannical rule of King Zhou, Lü Shang left his service and traveled from state to state, offering his wisdom to various lords but finding no ruler who appreciated his talents. Eventually, he made his way westward and sought refuge with Duke of Zhou. Other accounts state that Lü Shang was a recluse, living by the sea. When Duke of Zhou was imprisoned in the Youli, Lü Shang, along with the officials San Yisheng and Hong Yao, had heard of the Duke’s plight and decided to aid him. Lü Shang was moved by the Duke’s reputation for wisdom and his respect for elders, so he agreed to help. Together, they sought out rare treasures and beautiful women to present to King Zhou in order to secure Duke of Zhou’s release. Their efforts were successful, and Duke of Zhou returned to Zhou. Although the legends of Lü Shang’s return to Zhou vary, the common theme is that he served as the mentor to both King Wen and King Wu of Zhou.
After Duke of Zhou was freed from prison, he secretly conspired with Lü Shang to plan how to establish virtuous governance and overthrow the tyrannical Shang dynasty. Much of this involved military strategies and clever tactics, so future generations of strategists would come to respect Lü Shang’s fundamental strategies, which were central to the power and secretive machinations of the Zhou Dynasty. After securing a decisive victory in resolving territorial disputes between the Yu and Rui states, Duke of Zhou was praised as the “Mandate of Heaven’s King Wen” by poets. He then waged successful campaigns against the Chong, Mishu, and Quanyi states, consolidating power and strengthening the Zhou state. Two-thirds of the feudal lords of the land pledged allegiance to Zhou, many of them due to Taigong Wang’s careful planning.
Upon the death of King Wen, his son, King Wu, ascended the throne. Nine years later, King Wu sought to complete his father’s mission by launching an eastern campaign against King Zhou of Shang to gauge the response of the feudal lords. Before marching, Taigong Wang, known as “Shishang Fu” (Master of the Army), held the yellow halberd in his left hand and the white banner in his right. He declared, “The general of the army, Cang Si, will lead the troops and gather the fleet. Any delay shall result in execution.” As the army marched to Mengjin, the lords of various states, without being summoned, arrived in droves—there were 800 lords in total. The lords agreed, “We can now launch the campaign against King Zhou of Shang.” However, King Wu decided, “Not yet.” The army returned, and Taigong Wang and King Wu jointly drafted the “Great Oath.”
Two years later, after King Zhou had executed his son, Prince Bijian, and imprisoned his minister, Ji Zi, King Wu decided to launch the campaign against Shang once again. A divination was performed, but the turtle omen was unfavorable, and a sudden storm occurred. The ministers feared the consequences, but Taigong Wang insisted that King Wu press on. King Wu then led his army. On the first day of the 11th year (January 1), at Muye, the army swore its oath, and the campaign against King Zhou of Shang began. The Shang army was completely defeated. King Zhou fled to the Lu Tai and was pursued. The following day, King Wu stood on the sacrificial altar, where his ministers offered water and sacrifices, and the military supplies, including gold and grain, were distributed to help the poor. The tomb of Bijian was raised, and Ji Zi was released from prison. The Nine Tripod Vessels, symbolizing the supreme power of the world, were moved to Zhou, marking the beginning of a new era for the Zhou Dynasty. Most of these actions were the result of Taigong Wang’s strategic advice.
At this point, King Wu had defeated King Zhou and became the ruler of the land. He granted the state of Qi and its capital, Yingqiu, as a reward to Taigong Wang. Taigong Wang journeyed eastward to his new fief, but his journey was slow, and he was approached by the innkeeper, who commented, “I’ve heard that opportunities are rare and easily lost. This guest sleeps so peacefully; surely he is not just on his way to assume a new position.” Upon hearing this, Taigong Wang immediately rose and left, arriving in Qi by dawn. He encountered the Marquis of Lai, who was leading an army to attack, hoping to seize Yingqiu. Lai, a people of barbarian descent, took advantage of the turmoil following King Zhou’s fall and the Zhou Dynasty’s nascent stability, hoping to gain land from the unprotected Zhou borders.
Once in Qi, Taigong Wang improved governance, simplified rituals, promoted commerce, and developed the advantages of the fishing and salt industries. As a result, many people flocked to Qi, making it a powerful state. During the reign of King Cheng, when he was still a child, the states of Guan and Cai rebelled, and the Huaiyi people also turned against Zhou. King Cheng sent Duke Shao to instruct Taigong Wang, saying, “From the eastern sea to the Yellow River in the west, from Mu Ling in the south to Wudi in the north, there are five classes of feudal lords, each with their territories and officials. If any of them commit crimes, you are to suppress them.” Thus, Taigong Wang was able to unite and subdue neighboring states, securing Qi’s dominance and establishing Yingqiu as the capital.
When Taigong (Jiang Ziya) passed away at over 100 years of age, his son, Duke Ding of Lu (Lu Ji), succeeded him. After Duke Ding’s death, his son, Duke Yi of Lu, ascended to the throne. When Duke Yi died, his son, Duke Gui of Lu, the “慈母” (Cimǔ, “Loving Mother”), inherited the title. Upon Duke Gui’s death, his son, Duke Ai of Lu, took the throne, though his reign was short-lived.
During Duke Ai’s reign, the Marquis of Ji accused him before the King of Zhou, leading to the King’s decision to execute Duke Ai by boiling him in a cauldron, and his younger brother, Duke Jing, was appointed as the new ruler of Qi, taking the title of Marquis Hu. Marquis Hu relocated the capital to Bogu, during the reign of King Yi of Zhou.
Duke Ai’s younger brother, Shan, who resented the rise of Marquis Hu, conspired with his followers and the people of Yingqiu to assassinate Marquis Hu and seize power for himself, declaring himself Duke Xian of Qi. In his first year of reign, Duke Xian expelled all of Marquis Hu’s sons and took the opportunity to move the capital from Bogu to Linzi.
In the ninth year of Duke Xian’s reign, he passed away, and his son, Duke Wu of Qi, succeeded him. Duke Wu ruled for nine years, during which the King of Zhou, King Li, fled and sought refuge in the town of Zhi. In the tenth year (841 BCE), the Zhou royal family was in turmoil, and the ministers took over the governance, calling it the “Republic” (Gonghe). In the twenty-fourth year (827 BCE), King Xuan of Zhou ascended the throne.
In the twenty-sixth year (825 BCE), Duke Wu died, and his son, Duke Li of Qi, succeeded him. Duke Li was known for his cruelty, and as a result, the son of Marquis Hu returned to Qi, where the people considered installing him as the ruler. However, this led to an attack on Duke Li, and he was killed in the conflict. The people then crowned Duke Li’s son, Duke Wen of Qi, who avenged his father’s death by executing over seventy of the conspirators.
Duke Wen died in the twelfth year (804 BCE), and his son, Duke Cheng of Qi, succeeded him. Duke Cheng ruled for nine years and passed away in the ninth year (795 BCE), with his son, Duke Zhuang of Qi, taking the throne.
In the twenty-fourth year of Duke Zhuang’s reign (771 BCE), the Xiongnu attacked and killed King You of Zhou, causing the Zhou royal family to move the capital east to Luoyi. The state of Qin began to rise as one of the prominent powers. In the fifty-sixth year (739 BCE), the people of Jin assassinated their ruler, Duke Zhao of Jin.
In the sixty-fourth year (731 BCE), Duke Zhuang died, and his son, Duke Xi of Qi, succeeded him. Duke Xi ruled for nine years (722 BCE), and in the nineteenth year (712 BCE), Duke Huan of Lu killed his brother, Duke Yin of Lu, and assumed the throne of Lu.
In the twenty-fifth year (706 BCE), the northern Rong tribes attacked the state of Qi. The state of Zheng sent Crown Prince Hu to assist Qi, and the ruler of Qi wished to marry his daughter to Hu. Hu replied, “The state of Zheng is small, and Qi is large. I am unworthy.” He thus declined the offer.
In the thirty-second year (699 BCE), Duke Xi’s younger brother, Yi Zhongnian, passed away. His son, Gongsun Wuzhi, was greatly favored by Duke Xi, who provided him with the same level of rank, chariot, and attire as the crown prince.
In the thirty-third year (698 BCE), Duke Xi died, and Crown Prince Zhu Er succeeded him, becoming Duke Xiang of Qi.
In the first year of Duke Xiang’s reign (697 BCE), during his time as crown prince, he had competed with Gongsun Wuzhi for power. Once Duke Xiang ascended the throne, he reduced Gongsun Wuzhi’s salary and status, which created lasting resentment in Gongsun Wuzhi’s heart.
In the fourth year (694 BCE), Duke Huan of Lu and his wife visited Qi. Duke Xiang had previously had an affair with Duke Huan’s wife, who was also his sister. She had been married to Duke Huan when Duke Xiang’s father, Duke Xi, was the ruler of Qi. Upon their visit to Qi, the wife again had an affair with Duke Xiang. When Duke Huan discovered this, he angrily confronted his wife, who confessed to the affair with Duke Xiang. Duke Xiang invited Duke Huan to a banquet, got him drunk, and had a strongman, Peng Sheng, carry Duke Huan to a carriage. There, Peng Sheng broke Duke Huan’s ribs and killed him. When Duke Huan’s body was taken from the carriage, he had already died. The people of Lu criticized Qi for this act, and Duke Xiang killed Peng Sheng as an apology to Lu.
In the eighth year (690 BCE), Qi launched a campaign against the state of Ji, forcing the relocation of Ji’s capital.
In the twelfth year (686 BCE), Duke Xiang sent Lian Cheng and Guan Zhi Fu to guard Kuiqiu, with instructions to replace them when the melons ripened in July the following year. However, when the melons ripened, Duke Xiang failed to send replacements. When there was a petition to replace them, Duke Xiang refused. The two men, angered by this, conspired with Gongsun Wuzhi to rebel. Lian Cheng had a cousin in Duke Xiang’s palace who was not favored, and she was enlisted to secretly monitor Duke Xiang. She was promised to become Gongsun Wuzhi’s wife once the rebellion succeeded.
In December of that year, Duke Xiang went to Gufen for leisure, and later to Peiqiu to hunt. He encountered a large pig, and his attendants remarked that it resembled Peng Sheng. Enraged, Duke Xiang shot an arrow at it, but the “pig” stood up and cried like a human. Duke Xiang, startled, fell from his carriage and injured his foot, losing his shoe. When he returned to the palace, he had the man responsible for his shoes, named Fu, whipped three hundred times and expelled him from the palace.
Gongsun Wuzhi, Lian Cheng, and Guan Zhi Fu, upon hearing of Duke Xiang’s injury, gathered their forces and attacked Duke Xiang’s palace. They encountered Fu, who told them not to enter yet, as doing so might alert the palace and make it difficult to penetrate. Gongsun Wuzhi was skeptical, but Fu convinced him by showing his wounds. They waited outside the palace, and Fu entered to scout. Once inside, Fu quickly hid Duke Xiang behind a door. After a long time, Gongsun Wuzhi and his men grew anxious and entered. Fu then led a counterattack, and together with the palace guards, they defeated the rebels. Gongsun Wuzhi was unable to find Duke Xiang. A servant noticed a pair of feet sticking out from behind the door, and when the door was opened, they found Duke Xiang, who was killed by Gongsun Wuzhi, who then declared himself the ruler of Qi.
In the spring of the first year of Duke Huan (685 BC), the ruler of Qi, Duke Wu Zhi, traveled to Yonglin for leisure. A group of people in Yonglin, harboring resentment against Wu Zhi, seized the opportunity to ambush and kill him. They then declared to the officials of Qi, “Wu Zhi assassinated Duke Xiang to usurp the throne. I have executed him. Please appoint another of the princes who should succeed the throne. I will obey your commands.”
In the past, Duke Xiang had drunkenly murdered Duke Huan of Lu, committed adultery with Lady Lu, and repeatedly punished his officials unjustly. Obsessed with women, he often mistreated his ministers. Fearing that his actions would lead to their downfall, his younger brother, Jiu, fled to the state of Lu, where their mother came from. Meanwhile, officials like Guan Zhong and Zhao Hu assisted Duke Xiang. The youngest brother, Xiao Bai, fled to the state of Ju, where Bao Shuxia, his maternal uncle, supported him. Xiao Bai’s mother was a woman from the state of Wei, who had been favored by Duke Li of Qi. Since childhood, Xiao Bai had maintained a close relationship with the official Gao Xi.
After the assassination of Wu Zhi, the people of Yonglin debated who should succeed the throne. Gao and Guo families quickly sent word to summon Xiao Bai back from Ju. Upon learning of Wu Zhi’s death, Lu sent an army to escort Prince Jiu back to Qi and ordered Guan Zhong to block the passage to Ju. Guan Zhong shot an arrow that struck Xiao Bai’s sash. Feigning death, Xiao Bai pretended to be slain, while Guan Zhong sent word back to Lu. The Lu army, slowed down by the delay, took six days to reach Qi, while Xiao Bai had already arrived and been installed as Duke Huan of Qi by Gao Xi.
After being struck by the arrow, Duke Huan pretended to be dead to deceive Guan Zhong. He then hid in a covered cart and traveled quickly, aided by the Gao and Guo families. Thanks to their inside support, he managed to take the throne in Qi and sent troops to repel the Lu army. In the autumn, the Qi and Lu armies clashed at Qian, where the Lu forces were defeated and forced to retreat. Qi then sent a letter to Lu saying, “Prince Jiu is my brother. I could not bear to kill him myself, so I ask Lu to execute him. As for my enemies, Zhao Hu and Guan Zhong, I demand that they be handed over to me alive so that I may have them minced into paste. Otherwise, we will lay siege to Lu.” Fearing for their safety, the people of Lu killed Prince Jiu at Shengdu. Zhao Hu committed suicide, and Guan Zhong was taken prisoner.
Upon his ascension to the throne, Duke Huan intended to kill Guan Zhong. However, Bao Shuxia, who had long served him, said, “I have been honored to follow you to this point, and now you are the ruler. I can no longer assist in raising your position further. If you wish only to rule Qi, Gao Xi and I will suffice. But if you seek to become the hegemon of all the lords, then you cannot do so without Guan Yiwu. The state in which Yiwu resides will surely grow strong, and we cannot afford to lose such a talent.” Duke Huan heeded this advice and pretended to summon Guan Zhong for revenge, intending instead to appoint him as his prime minister. Guan Zhong, understanding the true purpose, agreed to return to Qi. Bao Shuxia personally met Guan Zhong at Tangfu and removed his shackles, allowing him to purify himself before meeting with Duke Huan. Duke Huan rewarded him generously and appointed Guan Zhong as a high official to oversee state affairs.
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Once Guan Zhong took office, he, along with Bao Shuxia, Xi Peng, and Gao Xi, worked together to reform the government of Qi. They implemented the system of five families forming military alliances, revitalized commerce, and exploited the advantages of fishing and salt production. These reforms provided for the poor and rewarded talented individuals, leading to widespread happiness among the people of Qi.
In the second year (684 BC), Qi attacked and destroyed the state of Tan, whose ruler fled to Ju. This was due to the fact that when Duke Huan had once fled abroad, the people of Tan had treated him disrespectfully, which led to their punishment.
In the fifth year (681 BC), Duke Huan launched a campaign against the state of Lu. When the Lu army was on the brink of defeat, Duke Zhuang of Lu requested peace and offered the city of Sui as a gesture of reconciliation. Duke Huan agreed, and they met in the city of Ke to swear an oath of peace. However, at the altar, Cao Mo, an official from Lu, seized a dagger and held it to Duke Huan, demanding the return of lands occupied by Qi. Duke Huan reluctantly agreed, and Cao Mo threw down his dagger and returned to his position as a servant. Duke Huan later regretted his decision, intending to withdraw his promise and kill Cao Mo. Guan Zhong advised against this, saying, “If you agree to someone’s demands under duress and then break your word by killing them, it may provide brief satisfaction, but you will lose your credibility among the feudal lords and their support. This cannot be done.” Duke Huan then returned all the territories that had been lost by Lu during three previous defeats. Upon hearing this, the other lords respected Qi for keeping its word, and they flocked to align with the state.
In the seventh year (679 BC), the lords met in Zhen to form an alliance with Duke Huan of Qi, and from that point on, Duke Huan became the hegemon of all the feudal lords.
In the fourteenth year (672 BC), Prince Chen Wan of Chen, known as Jing Zhong, fled to Qi. Duke Huan intended to appoint him as a high official, but he humbly declined. He was instead appointed to the position of work supervisor, which marked the beginning of the ancestral line of Tian Chengzi, the famous statesman Tian Chang.
In the twenty-third year (663 BC), the Shan Rong tribes invaded the state of Yan, and Yan urgently requested help from Qi. Duke Huan dispatched an army to assist Yan and then proceeded to punish the Shan Rong, reaching Gu Zhu before turning back. King Zhuang of Yan sent Duke Huan a gift upon his return to Qi, but Duke Huan replied, “Apart from the Son of Heaven, no lord should send gifts beyond their own borders. I must not show disrespect to Yan.” Therefore, he had the land near the Yan border marked with ditches and returned it to the Yan state, allowing King Zhuang to restore the government of the Zhao family and resume tribute to the Zhou royal family, just as it had been during the reign of King Cheng and King Kang of Zhou. When other lords heard of this, they all pledged allegiance to Qi.
In the 27th year (659 BCE), Duke Min of Lu’s mother, Lady Ai Jiang, was the sister of Duke Huan of Qi. Lady Ai Jiang had an illicit affair with Duke Min’s son, Prince Qingfu, who subsequently murdered Duke Min. Lady Ai Jiang wanted to install Prince Qingfu as the new ruler, but the people of Lu chose to establish Duke Xi as the new ruler. Duke Huan of Qi summoned Lady Ai Jiang back to Qi and had her executed.
In the 28th year (658 BCE), Duke Wen of Wei was invaded by the Di people and sought help from Qi. Duke Huan of Qi led the feudal lords to build a fortress at Chu Hill and settled Duke Wen there for protection.
In the 29th year (657 BCE), Duke Heng and his consort, Lady Cai, were enjoying a boat ride. Lady Cai was skilled in navigating the waters and caused the boat to rock, unsettling Duke Huan. Fearing for his safety, Duke Huan ordered her to stop, but she continued. After disembarking, Duke Huan, enraged, sent Lady Cai back to her family, though he did not formally dissolve their marriage. Lady Cai’s father, Cai Hou, was furious and arranged for her to be remarried. When Duke Huan heard of this, his anger grew, and he launched a military campaign against the Cai state.
In the 30th year (656 BCE), in spring, Duke Huan of Qi led the feudal lords in an assault on the state of Cai, which was decisively defeated. The campaign then turned towards Chu. King Cheng of Chu mustered his army and asked, “Why are you entering my territory?” Guanzhong, Duke Huan’s strategist, replied, “In the past, the Duke of Zhou ordered our forefather, Taigong Wang, to oversee the territories granted to him, stretching from the East Sea to the Yellow River, from the southern Mu Ling to the northern Wudi. Chu has failed to deliver its tribute, and the sacrificial offerings for the Son of Heaven are incomplete, which is why we have come to oversee this matter. Furthermore, King Zhao of Chu went south and never returned, which is why we come to inquire.” King Cheng of Chu acknowledged his error in tribute and vowed not to neglect it again, but pointed out that the late King Zhao had not died within Chu’s territory and suggested that the matter be settled at the Han River. The Qi army advanced to Xingtian, where they camped. In summer, King Cheng of Chu sent General Qu Wan to resist Qi. Duke Huan boasted of the size of his army, but Qu Wan replied, “Justice leads to victory. Without it, how can you breach the fortified city of Fancheng with the mighty Yangtze and Han Rivers as its walls?” Duke Huan then made an agreement with Qu Wan and retreated. On their way back, they passed through the Chen state, where Chen minister Yuan Tao attempted to deceive Duke Huan into taking a difficult eastern route. This was soon discovered, and in the autumn of that year, Qi launched a campaign against Chen. During this year, Duke Wen of Jin killed his crown prince, Prince Shensheng.
In the 35th year (651 BCE), in summer, Duke Huan hosted a grand meeting of the feudal lords at Kui Hill. King Xiang of Zhou sent Minister Kong to present Duke Huan with offerings of sacrificial meat for the ancestors, weapons adorned with red and gold, and a chariot for the Son of Heaven, granting Duke Huan the special privilege of not having to bow in gratitude. Although Duke Huan intended to accept, Guanzhong advised against it. Duke Huan listened and bowed to accept the gifts. In autumn, another meeting of the lords was held at Kui Hill, and Duke Huan’s pride became even more apparent. Minister Kong of Zhou, seeing this, noted the growing discord among the lords and remarked, “Duke Huan has become arrogant; it matters little whether he attends the meeting.” The ruler of Jin, ill and delayed, heeded this advice and did not attend the gathering. That year, Duke Xian of Jin died, and Minister Li Ke murdered the minor princes Xi Qi and Zhuo Zi. Because Qin’s Duke Mu’s wife was the sister of Prince Yi Wu of Jin, Duke Mu used his military strength to escort Yi Wu back to Jin to ascend the throne. Duke Huan also intervened in Jin’s internal turmoil, reaching the area of Gaoliang, where he installed Yi Wu as the ruler of Jin before withdrawing his troops.
At this point, the Zhou royal family had weakened, and the only strong states left were Qi, Chu, and Jin. Just after Jin joined the feudal lords’ alliance, Duke Xian of Jin passed away, plunging the state into chaos. Duke Mu of Qin, residing in a remote area, did not participate in the central states’ meetings. King Cheng of Chu had recently conquered the Jingman lands and saw himself as a ruler of barbarian lands. Only Qi, under Duke Huan’s leadership, could summon the feudal lords to meetings, demonstrating the virtue and might of Qi. As a result, the various lords came to pay homage. Duke Huan declared, “I have marched south to Zhaoling and looked upon Mount Xiong’er; I have led campaigns against the mountain tribes, Li Zhi, and the State of Guzhu; I have ventured westward into Great Xia, crossed the flowing sands, and traveled difficult paths with horses and war chariots, reaching Beier Mountain before returning. None of the lords resisted me. I have convened three chariot-based alliances and six other such assemblies, uniting the world under one banner. The founding emperors of the Three Dynasties did the same—what sets me apart from them? I wish to perform the ritual of sealing and sacrifice at Mount Tai and Liangfu.” Guanzhong, advising against haste, recommended waiting for rare treasures and oddities from distant lands before carrying out such a ritual. Duke Huan finally consented to delay.
In the 38th year (648 BCE), King Xiang of Zhou’s younger brother, Prince Dai, conspired with the Rong and Di peoples to invade Zhou. Duke Huan sent Guanzhong to Zhou to mediate peace. King Xiang of Zhou wished to greet Guanzhong with the honors of a high minister, but Guanzhong, humbly, refused the offer, saying, “I am merely a minister; how can I accept such honors?” After much insistence, he accepted the lesser honor of a lower minister. In the 39th year (647 BCE), Prince Dai fled to Qi. Duke Huan sent Zhongsun to apologize to King Xiang of Zhou on Dai’s behalf, but King Xiang was furious and refused the request.
In the 41st year of the reign of Duke Mu of Qin (645 BCE), he captured Duke Hui of Jin but later released him back to his country. That same year, two important figures, Guan Zhong and Xi Peng, passed away. Before his death, Guan Zhong was gravely ill, and Duke Huan of Qi asked him, “After your death, who among the ministers could serve as prime minister?” Guan Zhong replied, “No one knows my ministers as well as you do, Your Majesty.” Duke Huan asked, “What about Yi Ya?” Guan Zhong responded, “He killed his own son to please the ruler. Such actions are against human nature, and he cannot be trusted.” The Duke then asked, “What about Kai Fang?” Guan Zhong answered, “He abandoned his parents to please the ruler, which also goes against human nature and is unworthy of trust.” Duke Huan asked again, “What about Shu Dao?” Guan Zhong replied, “He castrated himself to please the ruler. This is against human nature and cannot be trusted.” Despite Guan Zhong’s warnings, Duke Huan still chose to trust these three men, and they soon grew powerful and dominated the court.
In the 42nd year (644 BCE), the Rong tribes attacked the Zhou Dynasty, prompting the Zhou King to send an urgent plea for help to the state of Qi. In response, Qi ordered its vassals to send troops to protect the Zhou royal family. That year, the son of Duke Xian of Jin, Chong’er, arrived in Qi, and Duke Huan of Qi arranged for his daughter to marry him.
In the 43rd year (643 BCE), Duke Huan of Qi had three wives: Wang Ji, Xu Ji, and Cai Ji, but none bore him a son. Duke Huan was fond of women and had many concubines, six of whom held positions equal to that of his wives. These concubines included Chang Wei Ji (mother of Wu Gui), Shao Wei Ji (mother of Duke Hui of Qi), Zheng Ji (mother of Duke Xiao of Qi), Ge Ying (mother of Duke Xiao of Qi), Mi Ji (mother of Duke Yi of Qi), and Song Hua Zi (mother of Gongzi Yong). Duke Huan and Guan Zhong once entrusted Duke Xiao of Qi to Song Xianggong to be made the crown prince. Yi Ya had the favor of Duke Huan’s concubine, Chang Wei Ji, and sent lavish gifts to Duke Huan via Eunuch Shu Dao, which further ingratiated him with the Duke. As a result, Duke Huan promised Yi Ya that Wu Gui would be made the crown prince. After Guan Zhong’s death, five of Duke Huan’s sons sought to be crowned as the heir. In the tenth month of that year, Duke Huan passed away. Yi Ya entered the palace, and with the help of Shu Dao, he orchestrated a massacre of the high ministers and made Wu Gui the new ruler of Qi. The crown prince, Duke Zhao, fled to the state of Song.
While Duke Huan was ill, the five sons each formed factions and fought for the position of crown prince. After his death, they continued to battle one another, and no one dared to prepare the Duke’s body for burial. Duke Huan’s body remained on the bed for 67 days, covered with maggots that even crawled outside the door. On the 12th month, Wu Gui formally ascended the throne, and only then did they prepare the body for burial, informing the other states of Duke Huan’s passing. On the 13th, they dressed the body and placed it in the coffin in the hall.
Duke Huan had more than ten sons, five of whom ultimately ascended the throne. After Wu Gui’s brief reign of three months, he died without receiving a posthumous title. Following him was Duke Xiao, then Duke Zhao, followed by Duke Yi, and finally Duke Hui. In the first year of Duke Xiao’s reign (642 BCE), Song Xianggong led an army of vassal states to return Duke Zhao to Qi and also attacked the state. The Qi people, afraid, killed Wu Gui and were about to crown Duke Zhao as the new ruler. However, the factions of the other four princes attacked Duke Zhao. Duke Zhao fled to Song, and Song fought against the armies of the four princes of Qi. In May, Song’s army defeated the four princes and crowned Duke Zhao as Duke Xiao of Qi. Song had come to Qi to fulfill the trust that Duke Huan and Guan Zhong had placed in them regarding the crown prince. Due to the chaos of war, it wasn’t until August that they were able to bury Duke Huan.
In the sixth year (637 BCE), Qi attacked Song because Song had refused to participate in the alliance at Qi. In the summer, Song Xianggong died. In the seventh year (636 BCE), Duke Wen of Jin ascended to the throne.
In the tenth year (633 BCE), Duke Xiao died, and his brother, Pan Ruo, killed Duke Xiao’s son to install himself as Duke Zhao. Duke Zhao was the son of Duke Huan and his concubine Ge Ying.
In the first year of Duke Zhao’s reign (632 BCE), Duke Wen of Jin decisively defeated the Chu forces at Chengpu and summoned the other lords to a meeting at Jantu, where they formally acknowledged the supremacy of the Zhou royal family and designated Jin as the hegemon of the feudal states. In the sixth year (627 BCE), the Di tribes invaded Qi. Duke Wen of Jin died in that year, and the Qin army suffered a defeat at the Battle of Hao.
In the twelfth year (621 BCE), Duke Mu of Qin passed away.
In the nineteenth year (614 BCE), Duke Zhao died, and his son She was installed as Duke of Qi. However, She’s mother was not favored by Duke Zhao, and the people of Qi had little fear of him. Duke Zhao’s brother, Shang Ren, who had not been able to claim the throne after Duke Huan’s death, secretly allied with scholars and gained the affection of the people. After Duke Zhao’s death, his son She, weak and isolated, was killed in October by Shang Ren and his supporters, who then declared Shang Ren as Duke Yi of Qi. Duke Yi was also the son of Duke Huan, and his mother was Mi Ji.
In the fourth year of Duke Yi’s reign (609 BCE), when he was still a prince, Duke Yi had a hunting dispute with the father of Bing Rong over game. When he failed to claim the game, he later had Bing Rong’s father’s foot chopped off, but still allowed Bing Rong to drive his chariot. Bing Rong’s wife was beautiful, and Duke Yi took her into his palace while forcing Bing Rong to drive the chariot for him. In May, Duke Yi went to play at Shenchi, while Bing Rong and the servant You Zhi bathed and joked. You Zhi insulted Bing Rong, calling him “the son of the man who cut feet,” and Bing Rong retaliated, calling You Zhi “the husband who had his wife taken.” Both men were deeply ashamed by these insults, and they plotted together to kill Duke Yi. The two arranged a trip to the bamboo grove, where they killed Duke Yi and left his body in the grove before fleeing.
After Duke Yi ascended the throne, he became arrogant and oppressive, causing the people to refuse to pledge allegiance. The people of Qi deposed Yi’s son and, with the support of the state of Wei, invited Prince Yuan back to Qi, where he was established as the new ruler, becoming Duke Hui. Duke Hui was the son of Duke Huan of Qi. His mother, a lady from the state of Wei named Shao Wei Ji, had fled to Wei to escape the turmoil within Qi.
In the second year of Duke Hui’s reign (607 BC), Chang Zhai came to Qi. Prince Chengfu of Qi killed Chang Zhai and buried him at the northern gate. In the meantime, Zhao Chuan, a minister of Jin, assassinated King Ling of Jin.
In the tenth year (599 BC), Duke Hui died, and his son, Duke Qing, succeeded him. Previously, Cui Zhu had enjoyed Duke Hui’s favor, but after Duke Hui’s death, the Gao and Guo families, fearing Cui Zhu’s power, exiled him. Cui Zhu fled to the state of Wei.
In the first year of Duke Qing’s reign (598 BC), King Zhuang of Chu grew stronger and began attacking the state of Chen. In the second year (597 BC), he laid siege to the state of Zheng, forcing its ruler to surrender, though later allowing him to restore his rule.
In the sixth year (593 BC), Jin sent Xie Ke on a diplomatic mission to Qi. Duke Qing allowed Xie Ke’s mother to sit in a pavilion and watch the proceedings. As Xie Ke ascended the steps, she mocked him. Xie Ke responded, saying, “I will not let this insult go unpunished; I swear I will never cross the Yellow River again.” After returning to Jin, Xie Ke requested that Jin declare war on Qi, but the ruler of Jin refused. When Qi sent envoys to Jin, Xie Ke captured and killed four of Qi’s messengers within the borders of the river. In the eighth year (591 BC), Jin attacked Qi. Qi agreed to send Prince Qiang as a hostage to Jin, after which Jin’s army withdrew.
In the tenth year (589 BC), in the spring, Qi launched an invasion of the states of Lu and Wei. The ministers of Lu and Wei went to Jin to request military assistance, which was facilitated through Xie Ke. Jin dispatched 800 war chariots under the command of Xie Ke to relieve Lu and Wei and attack Qi. On the day of Ren Shen in June, the two armies clashed at Miji Mountain. On the day of Gui Xi, they formed battle lines at An Di. Pang Chou, a warrior serving as the charioteer to Duke Qing, urged the Qi army forward, saying, “Charge, defeat the Jin forces, and then we can celebrate.” During the battle, Qi forces wounded Xie Ke, and blood dripped down to his feet. Xie Ke considered retreating to his camp, but his charioteer, having already suffered two injuries, insisted, “I dare not complain of my pain, fearing it would frighten the troops. I am willing to bear the pain and continue fighting.” Xie Ke returned to the fray.
As the battle raged, the Qi army was in danger of defeat. Pang Chou, fearing Duke Qing would be captured, exchanged positions with the Duke, making him the charioteer. The chariot got stuck in a tree. A young general from Jin, Han Jue, knelt before Duke Qing’s chariot and mocked him, saying, “Our ruler sent me to assist Lu and Wei.” Pang Chou, pretending to be Duke Qing, ordered Duke Qing to dismount and fetch water, allowing him to escape and return to the Qi ranks.
Xie Ke sought to kill Pang Chou, but Pang Chou said, “I die in place of my king. If I am killed, future officials will never be loyal to their rulers again.” Xie Ke, moved by this argument, spared him, allowing Pang Chou to return to the Qi army. The Jin forces pursued the Qi army to Maling, where Duke Qing, seeking to atone for his actions, offered valuable treasures, but Xie Ke refused. Xie Ke insisted on punishing Xiao Tong Shuzi, who had ridiculed him, and demanded that Qi change the orientation of its agricultural fields to east-west. The people of Qi responded, “Xiao Tong Shuzi is the mother of Duke Qing. The mother of a ruler holds the same position as the ruler himself. How will you treat her? Moreover, you are leading a righteous army against Qi, but your actions are ruthless and unjust. How can you justify this?” Xie Ke relented, agreeing only to demand that Qi return the territories it had taken from Lu and Wei.
In the eleventh year (588 BC), Jin began to establish six ministers to reward those who had contributed during the battle at An Di. Duke Qing visited the ruler of Jin, intending to honor him with the rites appropriate for a visit to the Son of Heaven. However, Duke Jing of Jin refused, so Duke Qing returned to Qi. Upon his return, Duke Qing opened the royal hunting grounds, reduced taxes, aided the poor and the disabled, and used the state’s reserves to relieve the people’s suffering. The people rejoiced. Duke Qing also sent lavish gifts to the other lords. Throughout his reign, there was peace in Qi, and no feudal lords dared to invade the state.
In the seventeenth year (582 BC), Duke Qing passed away, and his son, Duke Ling, ascended the throne.
In the ninth year of Duke Ling’s reign (573 BC), the Jin minister Luan Shu assassinated King Li of Jin. In the tenth year (572 BC), Duke Dao of Jin attacked Qi, and Duke Ling sent Prince Guang as a hostage to Jin. In the nineteenth year (563 BC), Prince Guang was made the crown prince, with Gao Hou appointed to assist him. Prince Guang was sent to Zhongli to attend a meeting of the lords. In the twenty-seventh year (555 BC), Jin sent Zhongxing Xianzi to attack Qi. The Qi army was defeated, and Duke Ling fled to the city of Linzi. Yan Ying advised Duke Ling, but he did not listen. Yan Ying said, “Our ruler lacks courage.” The Jin army surrounded Linzi, but the people of Qi dared not engage. After the Jin army burned the outer city, they withdrew.
In the twenty-eighth year (554 BC), Duke Ling had married a lady from the state of Lu and had a son, Guang, who was made the crown prince. Later, he married Zhong Ji and Rong Ji. Rong Ji became favored, and Zhong Ji’s son, named Ya, was entrusted to Rong Ji for care. Rong Ji requested that Ya be made crown prince, and Duke Ling agreed. Zhong Ji objected, saying, “This cannot be. Guang was already made crown prince and had the support of the lords. If you depose him now without reason, you will surely regret it.” Duke Ling responded, “The choice of heir is mine alone.” He then moved Guang to the eastern part of the state and appointed Gao Hou to assist Ya in becoming the crown prince.
Duke Ling fell ill, and Cui Zhu, recalling the former crown prince Guang, installed him as king, known as Duke Zhuang. Duke Zhuang then killed Rong Ji. On the day of Ren Chen in May, Duke Ling died, and Duke Zhuang ascended the throne. He captured and killed Prince Ya at Ji Dou Qiu. In August, Cui Zhu killed Gao Hou. When Jin learned of the turmoil in Qi, they attacked and reached Gaotang.
In the third year of Duke Zhuang’s reign (551 BCE), Luan Ying, a high-ranking official of Jin, fled to the state of Qi, where Duke Zhuang treated him with great respect. Yan Ying and Tian Wenzi advised against this, but Duke Zhuang did not listen. In the fourth year (550 BCE), Duke Zhuang secretly sent Luan Ying into the state of Quwo to act as an agent for Qi. The Qi army then marched across Mount Taihang and entered the Mengmen Pass. When Luan Ying was discovered, the Qi forces retreated and attacked the city of Chaoge instead.
In the sixth year (548 BCE), after Duke Tang of Lu passed away, his beautiful wife was married to Cui Zhu. Duke Zhuang of Qi then had an affair with her, frequently visiting Cui Zhu’s household and even giving away Cui Zhu’s prestigious crown. One of Duke Zhuang’s attendants warned him that such actions were inappropriate. Cui Zhu, greatly angered, sought to avenge this by plotting with the state of Jin to overthrow Duke Zhuang. However, he did not have the opportunity to do so. Duke Zhuang had previously beaten the eunuch Jia Ju, but Jia Ju was later reinstated as an official and, seeking revenge, worked for Cui Zhu, looking for ways to exploit Duke Zhuang’s weaknesses. In May, the ruler of the state of Ju visited Duke Zhuang. Duke Zhuang invited him to a banquet on the Jiaxu day. Cui Zhu feigned illness and did not attend the court meeting. On the Yihai day, Duke Zhuang went to check on Cui Zhu’s health and then pursued an affair with Cui Zhu’s wife. Cui Zhu’s wife entered her room, and together with her husband, locked the door. Duke Zhuang remained in the main hall, holding a pillar and singing. At that moment, the eunuch Jia Ju blocked Duke Zhuang’s attendants outside, entered the courtyard, and locked the gate from within. Cui Zhu’s men, armed with weapons, swarmed in. Duke Zhuang climbed onto a high platform in the courtyard, begging for reconciliation, but the men refused. He then asked for an oath of peace, but again, they refused. Finally, he requested to be allowed to take his own life in the ancestral temple, but they still denied him. They said, “The ruler’s minister, Cui Zhu, is gravely ill and cannot obey your commands. We are near the palace, and our only duty is to apprehend those guilty of infidelity. We have received no other orders.” Duke Zhuang attempted to escape by jumping over the wall but was struck in the thigh by an arrow and fell back into the courtyard, where he was killed. Yan Ying stood outside the courtyard, saying, “If the ruler dies for the sake of the state, then his ministers should die with him. If the ruler flees for the state, then his ministers should follow him into exile. But if the ruler dies or flees for personal gain, then no one else will follow him in death or exile except those who benefited from his favor.” Yan Ying and others opened the gate, entered the courtyard, and placed Duke Zhuang’s body on his thigh, weeping. After three solemn stomps to show grief, they left the courtyard. Others said to Cui Zhu, “You must kill Yan Ying!” Cui Zhu replied, “He is beloved by the people, and if we spare him, we will win their support.”
On the Dingchou day, Cui Zhu installed Duke Zhuang’s half-brother, Chu Jiu, as the new ruler, who became Duke Jing. Duke Jing’s mother was the daughter of Shusun Xuanbo, a high official in the state of Lu. Upon ascending the throne, Duke Jing appointed Cui Zhu as the Right Minister and Qing Feng as the Left Minister. Fearing domestic instability, the two ministers swore an oath with the people, saying, “Anyone who does not follow Cui Zhu and Qing Feng will not survive!” Yan Ying sighed deeply and said, “I cannot do this. I will only follow those who are loyal to the ruler and benefit the state!” He refused to join their oath. Qing Feng, angered, sought to kill Yan Ying, but Cui Zhu intervened, saying, “He is a loyal minister; let him go.” The Qi state’s historian recorded the killing of Duke Zhuang by Cui Zhu on the official annals, but Cui Zhu had the historian killed. The historian’s brother recorded the same event, and Cui Zhu had him killed as well. The younger brother of the historian later recorded the event, but Cui Zhu spared him.
In the first year of Duke Jing’s reign (547 BCE), Cui Zhu had two sons, Cheng and Qiang. After his first wife died, he married the daughter of the Dongguo family, and they had a son named Ming. The daughter of the Dongguo family had her son, Wu Jiu, and her brother, Dongguo Yan, serve as ministers in the Cui family. Cheng committed a crime, and both Wu Jiu and Dongguo Yan immediately took strict action against him, installing Ming as the crown prince. Cheng requested to retire to the family estate in Cui, and Cui Zhu agreed, but the two ministers refused, saying, “Cui is the ancestral home of the Cui family, and Cheng is not allowed to go.” Cheng and Qiang, angry, informed Qing Feng, who had a grudge against Cui Zhu and wished to see his downfall. Cheng and Qiang killed Wu Jiu and Dongguo Yan in Cui Zhu’s household, and their family members fled. Cui Zhu, enraged but with no family left, had to rely on an eunuch to drive him to see Qing Feng. Qing Feng said, “Let me kill Cheng and Qiang for you.” He then sent his enemy, Lu Pu, to attack the Cui family, killing Cheng and Qiang and wiping out the entire Cui family. Cui Zhu’s wife committed suicide. Left without a family, Cui Zhu also took his own life. Qing Feng became the prime minister, consolidating immense power.
In the tenth month of the third year (545 BCE), Qing Feng went hunting. After killing Cui Zhu, Qing Feng became increasingly arrogant, drinking and indulging in hunting, neglecting state affairs. His son, Qing She, took over governance, and internal strife began. Tian Wenzi warned Tian Huanzi, “A rebellion is imminent.” The four families of Tian, Bao, Gao, and Luan united to eliminate the Qing family. Qing She sent soldiers to guard Qing Feng’s palace, but the four families’ followers broke into the Qing family’s residence. When Qing Feng returned, he was unable to enter his house and fled to the state of Lu. The people of Qi reproached Lu for this, and Qing Feng fled again, this time to the state of Wu. Wu granted him land in Zhu Fang, where he and his family lived, now wealthier than in Qi. In the autumn of that year, the people of Qi relocated Duke Zhuang’s remains, while they displayed Cui Zhu’s body in the market to vent their anger.
In the ninth year (539 BCE), Duke Jing sent Yan Ying to the state of Jin. Yan Ying privately told Shuxiang, “The government of Qi will ultimately fall to the Tian family. Though the Tian family has no great merit, they are able to use public affairs to gain private favor, benefiting the people, and thus the people will support them.” In the twelfth year (536 BCE), Duke Jing visited the state of Jin and met with Duke Ping, planning to jointly attack the state of Yan. In the eighteenth year (530 BCE), Duke Jing visited the state of Jin again, meeting with Duke Zhao. In the twenty-sixth year (522 BCE), Duke Jing went hunting on the outskirts of Lu, then entered the capital of Lu to consult with Yan Ying on the rituals of the state. In the thirty-first year (517 BCE), Duke Zhao of Lu fled to Qi after the Ji family’s rebellion. Duke Jing wished to grant him a thousand households and land, but the son of Duke Zhao was advised against accepting, and Duke Zhao then requested Qi to attack Lu and seize Yunyi, where he would reside.
In the 32nd year of King Jing’s reign (516 BCE), a comet appeared in the sky. King Jing, sitting on the cypress platform, sighed and said, “These grand pavilions and towers, to whom will they ultimately belong?” The ministers were filled with worry and began to weep. Yet, Yan Zi smiled. King Jing, angered, asked, “Why do you laugh?” Yan Zi replied, “I laugh because the ministers are overly sycophantic.” King Jing responded, “The comet appeared in the northeastern sky, directly in line with the territory of Qi, and I am worried about it.” Yan Zi, undisturbed, replied, “You build high platforms and dig deep pools, you collect taxes excessively, fearing you do not collect enough, you impose harsh punishments, fearing you do not enforce them strictly enough. The most malevolent star, the Bèi (螳) star, is soon to appear. Why are you afraid of a comet?” King Jing asked, “Can we use prayer to dispel the comet?” Yan Zi answered, “If prayer can summon divine powers, it can also make them leave. But when the people are suffering and murmuring in discontent, how can one person’s prayers outweigh the voices of thousands of complaints?” At that time, King Jing was obsessed with grand constructions, raising many dogs and horses, living in extravagant luxury, overtaxing the people, and employing excessive punishment. Yan Zi took this opportunity to admonish him.
In the 42nd year (506 BCE), King Helü of Wu launched a military campaign against the state of Chu and captured its capital, Ying.
In the 47th year (501 BCE), the minister Yang Hu of Lu rebelled against the Duke of Lu, but he was defeated and fled to Qi, requesting Qi to attack Lu. Bao Zi advised King Jing to refrain from such action, and King Jing had Yang Hu imprisoned. However, Yang Hu escaped and fled to Jin.
In the 48th year (500 BCE), King Jing of Qi and Duke Ding of Lu reconciled at a meeting in Jiagu. Li Chu suggested, “Confucius is deeply knowledgeable about rites and ceremonies, but he is timid and not strong-willed. Allow the people of Lai to perform their music and dance as a pretext to capture the Duke of Lu. We can then make Lu comply with our demands.” King Jing, fearing that Confucius might become the prime minister of Lu and that Lu might grow too powerful, agreed to Li Chu’s plan. During the alliance meeting, Qi presented a musical and dance performance by the Lai people, and Confucius ascended the stage to order the capture and beheading of the Lai performers, reproaching King Jing for his actions according to the rites. Ashamed, King Jing returned the occupied lands of Lu as an apology before leaving. This year also marked the death of Yan Zi.
In the 55th year (493 BCE), two ministers of Jin, the Fan and Zhonghang families, rebelled against their ruler. The Duke of Jin launched an offensive against them, and they sought aid from Qi. Tian Qi proposed to King Jing that Qi assist them, saying, “The Fan and Zhonghang families have helped Qi many times in the past; we cannot abandon them.” King Jing sent Tian Qi to provide them with grain.
In the 58th year (490 BCE), during the summer, King Jing’s consort Yan Ji’s eldest son passed away. His favored concubine, Rui Ji, bore a son named Tu, who was still young. Since Rui Ji came from a humble background, and Tu’s behavior was improper, many of the ministers feared Tu would become the crown prince. They suggested that the eldest and most virtuous among the princes should be chosen instead. King Jing, weary from old age and reluctant to address the matter of a crown prince, favored Tu’s mother and wished to make Tu the crown prince. However, he did not want to make the decision directly, so he told the ministers, “Let us enjoy life now—do we still need to worry about who will be the ruler?” In the fall, as King Jing’s illness worsened, he ordered Guo Hui Zi and Gao Zhao Zi to establish the young Tu as the crown prince and expel the other princes, moving the court to Lai. Upon King Jing’s death, Tu ascended the throne as Duke Yanruzi. During the winter, while King Jing’s body had yet to be buried, the other princes, fearing for their lives, fled abroad. Tu’s half-brothers, Shou, Ju, and Qian, escaped to the state of Wei, while Princes Chang and Yang Sheng fled to Lu. The people of Lai sang:
“King Jing’s funeral could not be attended, the state’s military strategies were silenced. The followers of the princes, tell me, where will you ultimately go?”
In the first year of Duke Yanruzi’s reign (489 BCE), in the spring, Tian Qi disguised himself as a loyalist to the Gao and Guo families. Every time these families attended court, Tian Qi would offer them his horses and say, “You have the trust of the ruler, and all the ministers are fearful and plotting rebellion.” He also warned the ministers, “Gao Zhao Zi is too dangerous; before he acts against us, we must take action against him.” The ministers, convinced, followed his advice. In June, Tian Qi, Bao Mu, and the other ministers entered the palace with their forces and attacked Gao Zhao Zi. Gao Zhao Zi, hearing of the attack, joined Guo Hui Zi to protect the ruler. The ruler’s forces were defeated, and Tian Qi’s followers pursued them, with Guo Hui Zi fleeing to the state of Ju. Tian Qi returned and killed Gao Zhao Zi. Yan Yu fled to Lu. In August, the Qi ministers Bing Yizi escaped to Lu. After defeating the two prime ministers, Tian Qi sent someone to Lu to bring back Prince Yang Sheng. When Yang Sheng arrived in Qi, he was secretly hidden in Tian Qi’s home. In October, on the day of Wu Zi, Tian Qi invited the ministers to a banquet, saying, “The mother of the prince today will perform a humble ritual at home, please come and drink with us.” During the feast, Tian Qi had Yang Sheng hidden in a large bag in the middle of the banquet hall, and when the bag was opened, Yang Sheng emerged, and Tian Qi declared, “This is the ruler of Qi!” The ministers immediately bowed to him. Tian Qi then swore an oath with the ministers to establish Yang Sheng as the ruler. However, by now, Bao Mu had become drunk, and Tian Qi deceived everyone by saying, “I have aligned with Bao Mu to make Yang Sheng the ruler.” Bao Mu, angry, said, “Have you forgotten King Jing’s will to appoint Tu as the ruler?” The ministers, uncertain, began to reconsider, but Yang Sheng, kneeling, said, “If it is my destiny to be the ruler, let it be; if not, let it go.” Bao Mu, fearing further conflict, said, “They are all sons of King Jing, so what’s the harm?” He joined in the oath, and Yang Sheng was formally established as Duke Dao of Qi. Duke Dao entered the palace, ordered the exile of Yanruzi to Tai, and had his tent set up on the way, where Yanruzi was killed. Tu’s mother, Rui Zi, was also exiled. As Rui Zi came from a lowly background and Tu was still a child, they had no power, and the people looked down upon them.
In the first year of Duke Dao’s reign (488 BC), the state of Qi launched an attack on Lu, capturing the territories of Huan and Chan. Originally, Yang Sheng had fled to Lu, where Ji Kangzi had married him to his sister. After Yang Sheng returned to Qi and ascended the throne, he sent for his wife. However, his wife, Ji Ji, had been involved in an affair with Ji Fang, which she confessed to her family. The people of Lu, unwilling to send Ji Ji to Qi, led to Qi’s invasion of Lu, culminating in the retrieval of Ji Ji. Ji Ji was favored by Duke Dao, and in return, Qi returned the lands it had seized from Lu.
There were tensions between Baozi and Duke Dao, leading to strained relations. In the fourth year (485 BC), the states of Wu and Lu jointly attacked Qi in the south. Baozi assassinated Duke Dao and notified Wu of his death. King Fuchai of Wu, following the customary mourning rites, wept for three days outside the military gates. He planned to advance by sea to wage war against Qi. However, the Qi army defeated Wu’s forces, and Wu’s army retreated. Meanwhile, Zhao Yang of Jin launched an attack on Qi but withdrew after reaching Lai.
The people of Qi united and installed Duke Dao’s son, Ren, as the new ruler, known as Duke Jian.
In the fourth year of Duke Jian’s reign (481 BC), Duke Jian had previously been close to a high official, Jian Zhi, during his time in Lu with his father. Upon his ascension, Duke Jian allowed Jian Zhi to retain political power. Fearing Jian Zhi’s growing influence, Tian Chengzi remained cautious and always looked back during court sessions. Tian Yao, Duke Jian’s charioteer, advised, “The influence of both Tian and Jian cannot coexist. You must choose between them.” Duke Jian, however, did not heed the warning. One day, Jian Zhi arrived late to court, and Tian Yao took the opportunity to have Tian Ni, a member of the Tian family, kill Jian Zhi and imprison him in the palace.
During this time, the Tian family, united in their strength, helped Tian Ni feign illness, allowing him to receive wine from his family members, which intoxicated the guards. Tian Ni escaped and later swore an oath with Jian Zhi to resolve the issue. Earlier, Tian Bao had sought to become Jian Zhi’s servant but had refrained during a mourning period. Eventually, Tian Bao became Jian Zhi’s subordinate and gained significant favor. Jian Zhi, seeing an opportunity, asked Tian Bao, “I could drive out the entire Tian clan and make you its leader. Would you accept this?” Tian Bao replied, “I am but a distant branch of the Tian family. There are only a few who do not follow you. Why drive out the entire clan?” He then informed the Tian family, and Tian Ni said, “He is now favored by the ruler. If Tian Chengzi does not act first, he will bring disaster upon himself.” Tian Ni thus took refuge within the palace to prepare for action.
On the day of Ren Shen in May, Tian Chang and his brothers approached Duke Jian in four chariots. Jian Zhi, currently in his pavilion, went out to greet them. As soon as they entered, the palace gates were shut, and the eunuchs attempted to resist the Tian family, but Tian Ni killed them. Duke Jian, who was drinking wine with his consorts, was taken to the inner palace by Tian Chang. The Duke attempted to fight back, but the historian Ziyu intervened, saying, “Tian Chang does not seek your harm but aims to remove threats to your reign.” Tian Chang took up residence in the armory, where he learned that Duke Jian remained angered. Tian Chang considered fleeing abroad, saying, “There are always rulers somewhere.” Tian Ni, drawing his sword, warned, “Hesitation is the root of misfortune. Everyone here is from the Tian family. If you flee and abandon us, I will kill you for dishonoring your ancestors.” Tian Chang decided to stay.
Jian Zhi fled to his home, rallying supporters to attack the palace gates. However, his efforts were unsuccessful, and he eventually fled. The Tian family chased him, and someone in Fengqiu captured and reported Jian Zhi’s location. The Tian family cornered him at Guomen and killed him. Tian Chang sought to kill Da Lishi Fang, but Tian Ni pleaded for him, and Fang was spared. In the name of Duke Jian, Tian Bao had chariots intercepted on the road, heading out from Yongmen. Tian Bao had once given Tian Ni a chariot but declined, saying, “If I use this chariot now, people will think I am secretly allied with the Tian family. I am but a servant of Jian Zhi. How could I be seen with those who are my enemies?”
On the day of Geng Chen, Tian Chang captured Duke Jian at Xuzhou. Duke Jian lamented, “If only I had listened to Tian Yao’s advice, I wouldn’t be in this situation.” On the day of Jia Wu, Tian Chang executed Duke Jian. He installed Duke Jian’s brother, Ao, as the new ruler of Qi, known as Duke Ping.
After Duke Ping ascended the throne, Tian Chang became the Prime Minister, wielding full control over Qi. He carved out a vast territory, including the eastern region of Qi, which he designated as the Tian family’s domain.
In the eighth year of Duke Ping’s reign (473 BC), the state of Yue destroyed the state of Wu. In the twenty-fifth year (456 BC), Duke Ping died, and his son, Duke Xuan, succeeded him.
In the fifty-first year of Duke Xuan’s reign (405 BC), Duke Xuan died, and his son, Duke Kang, inherited the throne. During the second year of Duke Kang’s reign (403 BC), the states of Han, Zhao, and Wei emerged as independent lords. In the nineteenth year (386 BC), Tian Chang’s great-grandson, Tian He, became a lord and exiled Duke Kang to the coast.
In the twenty-sixth year (379 BC), Duke Kang died, and the Lü family’s ancestral rites were abolished. The Tian family finally gained full control over Qi. By the time of Duke Wei, Qi had become a dominant force, known throughout the land for its strength.
The Grand Historian writes: “When I arrived in Qi, I saw that the land stretched from Mount Tai in the west to Langya in the east, and northward to the Great Sea. The fertile land covered two thousand li, and the people were broad-minded, deep, and wise—traits inherent in their nature. Thanks to the wise governance of Taigong and the great virtues of Duke Huan, who enacted good policies, Qi was able to gather the feudal lords and become the hegemon. Wasn’t this a natural result? Grand and magnificent, it truly exemplified the grandeur of a great nation!”