Emperor Gaozu was born in Zhongyang Village, Fengyi County, Pei Commandery, with the surname Liu and the given name Ji. His father was Taigong, and his mother was Liu Ao (pronounced “ǎo,” with the tone like “ǎo,” similar to “wife” in ancient Chinese). Before Gaozu’s birth, Liu Ao once rested by the banks of the Great Marsh, where she had a dream of union with a divine being. At that moment, thunder roared and lightning flashed, casting the world into darkness. Just as Taigong went to check on her, he saw a dragon coiling around her body. Soon after, Liu Ao became pregnant and gave birth to Gaozu.
Gaozu was a man of notable appearance: high-bridged nose, with a dragon-like visage, and a face adorned with beautiful whiskers. On his left leg, there were seventy-two black moles. He was kind-hearted and benevolent, often giving alms, and had a broad mind. He possessed the temperament of a person destined for great deeds and never engaged in the mundane labor of ordinary people. When he grew older, he tried his hand at officialdom and became the head of Sishui Pavilion. There, he had a habit of playing pranks on the officers and clerks. He enjoyed drinking and was fond of women. He frequently visited Wang Ao and Wu Fu, where he would drink on credit. After getting drunk, he would lie down and sleep. Wang Ao and Wu Fu, upon observing strange occurrences of dragons appearing on his body, thought him to be unusual. Whenever Gaozu bought wine, there was a surge in customers, and the sales would increase severalfold. After witnessing these odd phenomena, by year’s end, both Wang Ao and Wu Fu ceased to collect the debts from Gaozu, tearing up their accounts.
Gaozu once went to Xianyang to serve in forced labor, and one day, Emperor Qin Shi Huang made an inspection tour, allowing people to watch. Upon seeing the emperor, Gaozu sighed deeply and said, “Ah, a true man should be like this!”
Lü Gong, a man from Shanfu, had close ties with the Prefect of Pei County. To escape his enemies, Lü Gong sought refuge at the Prefect’s residence and made his home in Pei County. When the local heroes and officials heard of the esteemed guest, they all rushed to congratulate him. At the time, Xiao He was an officer under the Prefect, responsible for receiving gifts of congratulations. He told the guests, “Anyone who brings less than a thousand gold, let them sit below.” Gaozu, who was serving as Pavilion Head, held these officials in disdain, so he boldly wrote “Ten thousand gold” on his greeting card, though he had no money with him. When the card was presented, Lü Gong was astonished upon seeing Gaozu and quickly rose to greet him. Lü Gong, who had a penchant for reading faces, looked at Gaozu and was filled with respect. He led him to the main hall to sit. Xiao He commented, “Liu Ji is all talk and little action.” Gaozu took this opportunity to mock the guests and boldly sat at the seat of honor without showing any humility. When the drinking was at its height, Lü Gong gestured for Gaozu to stay. After finishing his drink, Gaozu remained behind. Lü Gong said, “Since my youth, I have been keen on reading faces. Among all the people I’ve read, none compares to your face, Liu Ji. I hope you cherish it. I have a daughter whom I would like to offer as your wife or concubine.” After the feast, Lü Gong’s wife was furious and said, “You always wanted our daughter to marry someone of high rank, yet when the Prefect of Pei County asked for her hand, you refused. Why, then, have you so casually promised her to Liu Ji?” Lü Gong replied, “This is beyond what a woman can understand.” Eventually, Lü Gong’s daughter, Lü Hou, was married to Liu Ji. She later became the empress, the mother of Emperor Huidi and Princess Lu Yuan.
While Gaozu was a Pavilion Head, he often took leave to visit his family in the fields. One day, Lü Hou and her children were weeding when an old man passed by asking for water. Lü Hou offered him a drink and even gave him food. The old man, reading faces, remarked, “Madam, you are truly a woman of great fortune.” He also read the faces of her two children, saying, “This boy’s future is as great as his mother’s.” When Gaozu happened to pass by, Lü Hou told him what had occurred. He asked where the old man had gone, and she replied, “Not far.” Gaozu then went after the old man and inquired about the reading. The old man explained, “I saw that the woman and her children have faces of extraordinary fortune, and your face, too, is one of great destiny.” Gaozu thanked him, saying, “If what you say is true, I will never forget your kindness.” However, when Gaozu later rose to power, he could never find the old man again.
As Pavilion Head, Gaozu was fond of wearing a bamboo hat made from woven bamboo skin. He had his officers from Xue make one for him, and he wore it frequently. Even after rising to prominence, he continued to wear it. The hat came to be known as the “Liu Family Crown.”
Emperor Gaozu, in his role as Pavilion Head, was tasked with escorting convicts to Lishan. Many of the prisoners escaped along the way. Gaozu, anticipating that by the time they reached Lishan, all would have fled, decided to stop in the western marshes of Fengxi and drink. Under the cover of night, he released all the prisoners. He said, “You may all escape now, for I will soon be leaving as well!” Among the prisoners, more than ten strong men chose to follow him. Gaozu, emboldened by the wine, took a shortcut through the marshlands, with one man going ahead. The man returned and reported, “There is a large serpent blocking the path. It would be better to turn back.” Gaozu, intoxicated, replied, “A true man fears nothing!” He rushed forward, drew his sword, and cut the serpent in two, clearing the path. After traveling a few more miles, Gaozu, deeply drunk, collapsed onto the ground. As the others caught up with him, they noticed an old woman crying in the dark. When asked why, she replied, “Someone killed my child, and I am mourning for him.” “Why was your child killed?” they asked. The woman said, “My child was the son of the White Emperor and transformed into a serpent, blocking the road. Now, the son of the Red Emperor has killed him. That is why I cry.” The onlookers thought she was lying and were about to strike her, but suddenly, she vanished. When the group reached Gaozu, he woke up. They told him of the strange events, and Gaozu felt secretly pleased and became even more self-assured. His followers, too, began to feel both awe and fear toward him.
Emperor Qin Shi Huang once remarked, “In the southeast, there is a cloud that signifies the Emperor’s presence.” He then journeyed eastward, hoping to suppress this phenomenon. Gaozu, suspecting that this cloud was following him, fled to the remote mountains and lakes of Mang and Dang. Lü Hou, together with others, would often find him. Gaozu, puzzled, asked how she could always locate him, and Lü Hou replied, “There is always a cloud above your head, and by following it, I can easily find you.” Gaozu, pleased, felt even more satisfied. The young men of Pei County, having heard of these events, began to flock to him.
In the autumn of the first year of the Second Qin Emperor, Chen Sheng and others initiated a rebellion in Qi County. When they reached Chen, they declared themselves kings and named their country “Zhang Chu,” meaning the Great Chu of old. Many counties rose in revolt, murdering their officers in support of Chen Sheng. The Prefect of Pei County was terrified and considered joining the uprising. At that time, prison officials Cao Can and clerk Xiao He advised, “As a Qin official, if you now wish to betray the Qin dynasty and lead the people of Pei County in rebellion, few will heed your call. It would be better to recall those who have fled and rally a few hundred, using them to coerce others into obedience.” Thus, they sent Fan Kuai to summon Liu Ji. By then, Liu Ji had gathered a following of several dozen to over a hundred men.
Fan Kuai returned with Liu Ji, but the Prefect of Pei County, regretting his decision, feared the arrival of Liu Ji might lead to a coup. He shut the city gates, barricaded himself inside, and planned to kill Xiao He and Cao Can. Fearing for their lives, Xiao He and Cao Can left the city and sought refuge with Liu Ji for protection. Liu Ji, realizing the situation, wrote a letter on a silk scroll and shot it over the city walls, addressing the elders and people of Pei County: “The common people have suffered under the Qin regime for far too long. Though you are guarding the city, the lords of all lands have already risen, and soon, Pei County will be overrun. If you all join together and kill the Prefect, selecting a worthy leader from among the youth to rally to the cause, your families will be spared. Otherwise, the entire county, young and old, will be slaughtered, and nothing will be left to save.” The elders and youth of Pei County, eager for change, rose up, killed the Prefect, and opened the gates to welcome Liu Ji. They hoped he would take the position of Prefect.
Liu Ji, however, said, “We are in a time of chaos. As lords rise up, if we select the wrong leader, it could result in disaster. I do not fear for my own life, but I worry I lack the ability to protect you all. This is a grave matter; let us elect someone truly capable.” Xiao He, Cao Can, and others, all of whom were civil officials, feared the consequences of failure and pushed Liu Ji to accept the position. The people of the city also said, “We have heard of Liu Ji’s many remarkable deeds, and it is clear he will rise to greatness. No one else is more fortunate, as the divination has shown you to be the most auspicious.” Despite their urging, Liu Ji repeatedly declined. No one else dared take the post, so they made Liu Ji the Duke of Pei.
At the ceremony in Pei County, they offered sacrifices to the Yellow Emperor, symbolizing the power to unify the land, and to Chi You, the god of weaponry. They smeared the blood of sacrificed animals onto the banners and drums as a tribute. The banners were red, reflecting the symbolism of the slain serpent, the son of the White Emperor, and the murderer, the son of the Red Emperor. This color honored the legacy of the Red Emperor. Young officials like Xiao He, Cao Can, and Fan Kuai then recruited thousands of young men from Pei County. Together, they launched attacks on Huling and Fangyu, before retreating to fortify their position at Fengyi.
In the second year of Emperor Qin Ershi (208 BCE), Zhou Zhang, a general under Chen Sheng, led an army to attack Xishui but was defeated by Zhang Han and forced to retreat. The states of Yan, Zhao, Qi, and Wei all declared themselves independent and crowned their own kings. Xiang Liang and his nephew, Xiang Yu, raised an army in Wu County. The Prefect of Sishan in the Qin dynasty, named Ping, led troops to besiege Fengyi. Two days later, the Duke of Pei, leading his forces, emerged from the city and fought the Qin army, defeating them. He ordered Yong Chi to guard Fengyi and took his troops to Xue County. The Prefect of Sishan was defeated at Xue and fled to Qi County, where Cao Wushang, the left general of the Duke of Pei, captured and executed him. The Duke then retreated his forces to Kangfu, and no further battles occurred until they reached Fangyu.
King Chen Sheng sent a Wei general named Zhou Shi to seize territory. Zhou Shi sent a message to Yong Chi saying, “Fengyi was once the capital of Wei. Now that Wei has pacified dozens of cities, if you surrender to Wei, they will make you a Marquis and allow you to govern Fengyi. If you refuse, I will destroy the city.” Yong Chi, already reluctant to serve the Duke of Pei, immediately betrayed him upon receiving Wei’s offer and became the defender of Fengyi on their behalf. The Duke of Pei attempted to attack Fengyi, but was unable to capture it. He fell ill and retreated to Pei County, harboring resentment toward Yong Chi and the youths of Fengyi for their betrayal. He then heard that Ning Jun and Qin Jia of Dongyang had appointed Jing Ju as a regent king and stationed him in Liuxian, so he went to join them, hoping to borrow troops to assault Fengyi.
Meanwhile, General Zhang Han of the Qin dynasty, who was pursuing Chen Sheng’s army, sent his lieutenant, Sima Ren, northward to pacify the Chu territory. Sima Ren devastated Xiang County and advanced toward Dang County. Ning Jun of Dongyang and the Duke of Pei, leading their forces westward, clashed with Sima Ren at Xiaoxian. The battle was unfavorable, and they retreated to Liuxian to gather more soldiers. They then advanced to Dang County, where after three days of siege, they captured it and gathered about five or six thousand soldiers. They then attacked Xia, capturing it as well, and retreated to station at Fengyi. Hearing that Xiang Liang was in Xue County, the Duke of Pei, along with over one hundred cavalry, went to meet him. Xiang Liang added another five thousand men to his ranks, along with ten generals of the Fifth Rank.
The Duke of Pei spent over a month with Xiang Liang, and by then, Xiang Yu had already captured Xiangcheng and returned. Xiang Liang called all his commanders to Xue County. Upon hearing that King Chen was indeed dead, they crowned the grandson of the late King Huai of Chu, Xiong Xin, as the new King of Chu, and moved the capital to Xu Tai. Xiang Liang was honored with the title of “Wuxin Jun.” After several months, he led an attack northward on Kangfu to relieve Dong’e and defeated the Qin army. The forces of Qi withdrew, leaving the Chu army to continue pursuing the retreating Qin forces.
Subsequently, the Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu were ordered to march on Xianyang, where they captured and slaughtered the people of Chengyang. Their army then stationed east of Puyang and clashed with the Qin army, defeating them.
The Qin forces regrouped, defended Puyang, and diverted water around the city to strengthen their position. The Chu forces retreated and attacked Dingtao but failed to capture it. The Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu then moved westward to seize land. They fought and decisively defeated the Qin forces at Yongbing, where they slew Li You. However, they failed to capture Waihuang.
Xiang Liang, having won two victories over the Qin army, became increasingly arrogant. Song Yi, a respected advisor, tried to offer counsel, but Xiang Liang dismissed his advice. In response, the Qin dynasty reinforced Zhang Han’s forces, and under the cover of night, they launched a surprise attack on Xiang Liang’s army. To maintain silence, the soldiers held sticks in their mouths. In the ensuing battle at Dingtao, Xiang Liang’s army was defeated, and Xiang Liang was killed. At that time, the Duke of Pei and Xiang Yu were attacking Chenliu. Upon hearing of Xiang Liang’s death, they moved eastward, joining General Lü’s forces. Lü’s army stationed east of Pengcheng, Xiang Yu’s army west of Pengcheng, and the Duke of Pei’s forces at Dang County.
After Zhang Han’s victory over Xiang Liang, he believed that the Chu forces were no longer a threat, so he crossed the Yellow River and advanced north to attack Zhao. At this moment, Zhao Xie was crowned King of Zhao, and Qin general Wang Li besieged Zhao Xie’s forces at Julu City, in what became known as the Hebei Army.
In the third year of the Second Qin Emperor (207 BCE), King Huai of Chu, seeing that Xiang Liang’s forces had been defeated, became fearful. He relocated the capital from Xu Tai to Pengcheng and merged the forces of Lü Chen and Xiang Yu, placing them under his personal command. He appointed the Duke of Pei as the Governor of Dang County and conferred upon him the title of Marquis of Wuan, putting him in charge of the troops of Dang County. Xiang Yu was made Marquis of Chang’an and was honored as the Duke of Lu, while Lü Chen was made Minister of the Interior, with his father Lü Qing as Chancellor.
The state of Zhao made several requests for assistance. To help, King Huai appointed Song Yi as the Supreme General, Xiang Yu as his second-in-command, and Fan Zeng as the third-in-command. Together, they advanced north to relieve Zhao. They ordered the Duke of Pei to attack westward and march into Guanzhong, with an agreement among the commanders that whoever first entered the pass and pacified the region would be declared ruler there.
At this time, the Qin forces were strong, and they often pursued the defeated enemies with a victorious momentum. No other general considered it advantageous to be the first to enter the pass, except for Xiang Yu, who was enraged by the Qin army’s defeat of Xiang Liang’s forces and eagerly wanted to march west with the Duke of Pei. The older generals, however, cautioned, “Xiang Yu is swift and fierce, but he is also treacherous and destructive. When he captured Xiangcheng, no one in the city survived—everyone was buried alive. Wherever he goes, destruction follows. Furthermore, despite repeated defeats of King Chen and Xiang Liang, he is not the right person to lead the army. Instead, we should send someone honest and benevolent to speak to the people of Qin, who have long suffered under their tyrannical ruler. Only such a person could win their hearts and bring them to submit peacefully. Xiang Yu, though brave, is not fit for this task. Only the Duke of Pei is known for his sincerity and virtue, and he should be the one to go.”
In the end, King Huai did not consent to Xiang Yu’s request and instead sent the Duke of Pei to lead the army westward to capture territory, gathering scattered soldiers from Chen Sheng and Xiang Liang’s forces along the way. The Duke of Pei advanced from Dang County, reaching Chengyang, where they clashed with the Qin forces stationed there and defeated two of their divisions. The Chu army then attacked Wang Li, inflicting a crushing defeat on him.
In the second year of the reign of Emperor Qin Er (208 BCE), the general Zhou Zhang, one of Chen She’s subordinates, attacked Xishui but was defeated and forced to retreat by Zhang Han. The states of Yan, Zhao, Qi, and Wei declared themselves independent kingdoms. Xiang Liang and Xiang Yu raised an army in Wu County, while the governor of Sishui Prefecture, named Ping, led troops to besiege Fengyi. Two days later, Pei Gong led his forces out of the city and fought against the Qin army, defeating them. Pei Gong ordered Yong Chi to defend Fengyi, while he himself marched to Xue County. The governor of Sishui Prefecture was defeated in Xue County and fled to Qi County. Pei Gong’s left general, Cao Wushang, captured and executed the governor of Sishui. Pei Gong then withdrew his forces to Kangfu, where no further battles occurred until he reached Fangyu.
Chen Wang Sheng sent a Wei general, Zhou Shi, to seize land. Zhou Shi sent a messenger to tell Yong Chi, “Fengyi was once the capital of Wei. Now, Wei has pacified dozens of cities. If you submit to Wei, Wei will make you a marquis and station you in Fengyi. If you refuse to submit, I will massacre Fengyi.” Yong Chi, who was already dissatisfied with Pei Gong, immediately rebelled upon hearing Wei’s offer and agreed to defend Fengyi for Wei. Pei Gong attempted to capture Fengyi but failed. Pei Gong fell ill and retreated back to Pei County, harboring resentment towards Yong Chi and the youth of Fengyi. He then heard that Ning Jun and Qin Jia in Dongyang had made Jing Ju their acting king, stationed in Liuxian. He decided to seek their help and borrow troops to attack Fengyi.
At this time, General Zhang Han of the Qin Dynasty was pursuing Chen She’s army. His deputy general, Sima Ren, led troops to the north to pacify Chu, slaughtering soldiers at Xiang County and advancing to Dang County. Pei Gong and Xiang Yu marched westward and clashed with Sima Ren near Xiao County. The battle did not go in their favor, so they retreated to gather more soldiers in Liuxian. They then attacked Dang County and after three days, captured it, gathering about five to six thousand soldiers. They continued their campaign, capturing Da Yi and retreating to Fengyi. Hearing that Xiang Liang was at Xue County, Pei Gong, with over a hundred cavalry, went to meet him. Xiang Liang sent him an additional five thousand soldiers and ten commanders of high rank. After returning, Pei Gong led his army to attack Fengyi once more.
Pei Gong had followed Xiang Liang for more than a month when Xiang Yu returned after capturing Xiangcheng. Xiang Liang summoned all his generals to Xue County. Upon hearing that Chen Wang had indeed died, they installed the grandson of Huai Wang of Chu, Xiong Xin, as the new Chu King, with the capital in Xuyi. Xiang Liang took the title of Wuxin Jun. After a few months, he attacked Kangfu to the north, rescued Dong’a, and defeated the Qin army. The army of Qi returned, leaving only the Chu forces to continue pursuing the retreating enemy. Pei Gong and Xiang Yu were then ordered to attack Xianyang and slaughter Chengyang. They stationed their forces to the east of Puyang and fought the Qin army, defeating them.
The Qin army regained their momentum, securing Puyang and surrounding the city with water defenses. The Chu forces withdrew to attack Dingtao but were unable to capture it. Pei Gong and Xiang Yu then advanced westward, clashing with the Qin forces at Yongbing City, where they decisively defeated them, killing Li You. They returned to attack Waihuang but were unsuccessful.
Xiang Liang had twice defeated the Qin army, which made him proud. General Song Yi advised him, but Xiang Liang did not listen. The Qin Dynasty sent reinforcements to Zhang Han, who launched a nighttime attack on Xiang Liang’s forces. To prevent noise, soldiers were instructed to bite wooden sticks, and in Dingtao, they defeated Xiang Liang’s army. Xiang Liang died in the battle. At this time, Pei Gong and Xiang Yu were attacking Chenliu. Upon hearing of Xiang Liang’s death, they marched east with General Lü to join forces. Lü’s army camped to the east of Pengcheng, while Xiang Yu’s forces were stationed to the west, and Pei Gong’s army was in Dang County.
After Zhang Han’s victory over Xiang Liang’s forces, he believed that the Chu army no longer posed a threat. He crossed the Yellow River and marched north to attack Zhao, where he decisively defeated their army. Meanwhile, Zhao Xie had ascended to the throne as the King of Zhao. The Qin general Wang Li had besieged Zhao Xie’s army at Julu City, marking the beginning of the Hebei military campaign.
In the third year of Qin Er (207 BCE), Chu Huai Wang, upon hearing of the defeat of Xiang Liang’s forces, grew fearful and moved the capital from Xuyi to Pengcheng. He combined the forces of Lü and Xiang Yu under his personal command. Pei Gong was appointed Governor of Dang County and made Marquis of Wuan, commanding the troops of Dang County. Xiang Yu was made Marquis of Chang’an and given the title of Duke of Lu, while Lü was appointed Chancellor, with his father Lü Qing as the Chief Minister.
Zhao frequently requested aid, and Huai Wang appointed Song Yi as the supreme general, with Xiang Yu as second-in-command and Fan Zeng as the third. They marched north to rescue Zhao. Huai Wang ordered Pei Gong to advance west to capture land and enter Guanzhong. The generals agreed that whoever reached Hangu Pass first and pacified the region would be crowned king of Guanzhong.
At this point, the Qin army was formidable, frequently pursuing retreating enemies and maintaining a victorious momentum. Most of the generals did not consider entering the pass to be advantageous. Only Xiang Yu, deeply angered by the defeat of Xiang Liang’s forces, was eager to join Pei Gong in advancing west. Huai Wang’s veteran generals warned, “Xiang Yu is swift and brave but also treacherous and harmful. He conquered Xiangcheng, and no one there survived. Everything he passes is destroyed. Moreover, after numerous failed assaults, both Chen Wang and Xiang Liang were defeated. It is better to send a righteous, honest person to lead the army to act with virtue, explaining the way to the people of Qin. The people have suffered under their harsh rulers for a long time, and now if a virtuous person goes, they will surrender. Xiang Yu is only quick and fierce; he is not the one to send. Pei Gong is trustworthy and righteous, so he should go instead.” Ultimately, Huai Wang agreed to send Pei Gong with a large army to the west, gathering the scattered forces of Chen She and Xiang Liang along the way.
Pei Gong marched from Dang County to Chengyang, where he clashed with Qin forces and defeated two of their units. The Chu army then attacked Wang Li’s forces, inflicting a crushing defeat.
Someone advised Pei Gong, saying, “The wealth of Qin lands surpasses that of other regions by tenfold, and the geographical advantages are remarkable. Now, it is said that Zhang Han has surrendered to Xiang Yu, who has conferred upon him the title of King of Yong, establishing his rule in the Guanzhong region. If he arrives, you may lose control of this land. It would be wise to quickly send troops to defend the Hangu Pass and prevent the armies of the lords from entering. Gradually, you should also recruit soldiers from Guanzhong to strengthen your forces in preparation for their resistance.”
Pei Gong, seeing the wisdom in this advice, decided to follow the plan. In mid-November, Xiang Yu indeed led the army of the lords westward, intending to enter the Hangu Pass. However, the gates were shut tight. Upon hearing that Pei Gong had secured Guanzhong, Xiang Yu was furious and sent troops led by Qing Bu to conquer the pass. By mid-December, they reached the Xi Shui area.
Pei Gong’s left marshal, Cao Wushang, heard of Xiang Yu’s anger and his intention to attack, so he sent a message to Xiang Yu, claiming, “Pei Gong plans to declare himself king in Guanzhong and make Qin’s Prince Ying his chancellor, taking all the treasures of the Qin palace as his own.” Cao Wushang hoped to use this as a way to gain favor from Xiang Yu. The advisor Fan Zeng persuaded Xiang Yu to strike Pei Gong, and Xiang Yu was preparing to meet him in battle the next day. At the time, Xiang Yu commanded 400,000 troops, though he claimed the number was over a million. Pei Gong had only 100,000, his forces outmatched by Xiang Yu’s.
By a stroke of fate, Xiang Bo, intending to save Zhang Liang from death alongside Pei Gong, secretly visited Pei Gong’s camp. He seized this opportunity to speak with Xiang Yu, convincing him to postpone the attack. The next day, Pei Gong, accompanied by his trusted generals, Fan Kua and Zhang Liang, visited Xiang Yu at Hongmen to apologize. Xiang Yu, realizing it was Cao Wushang who had falsely accused Pei Gong, decided to let him go. However, once back at his camp, Pei Gong ordered the execution of Cao Wushang.
Xiang Yu then continued his westward march, leaving a trail of destruction as he slaughtered and burned the Qin capital of Xianyang. Every place he passed was devastated. The people of Qin, disillusioned by Xiang Yu’s brutality, were too fearful to resist.
Xiang Yu sent messengers to report to King Huai. The king replied, “Follow the original agreement.” But Xiang Yu resented King Huai for sending him north to rescue Zhao instead of allowing him to enter the pass with Pei Gong, thus failing to arrive first and securing the territory. He thought to himself, “King Huai was made king by my uncle, Xiang Liang. He has no merit of his own—why should he be the one to dictate the agreement?” As a result, Xiang Yu pretended to elevate King Huai to the title of the ‘Righteous Emperor’ while secretly ignoring his commands.
In January, Xiang Yu proclaimed himself the “Hegemon-King of Western Chu,” ruling over the nine prefectures of Liang and Chu, with his capital in Pengcheng. He also broke the previous pact and declared Pei Gong the King of Han, with rule over Bashu and Hanzhong, and the capital at Nanzheng. He divided Guanzhong into three parts, assigning each to a surrendered Qin general: Zhang Han as King of Yong, with his capital at Feiqiu; Sima Xin as King of Sai, with his capital at Liyang; and Dong Yi as King of Zhai, with his capital at Gaonu. He also bestowed titles on several other generals and kings, including Zhao generals and the former King of Yan, Han Guang, who was relocated to Liaodong.
In April, all the lords, under Xiang Yu’s banner, disbanded their armies and returned to their respective lands. Pei Gong proceeded to his fiefdom as well, accompanied by thirty thousand soldiers. Many other lords and their soldiers, impressed by Pei Gong’s reputation, followed him south from Du County into the mountains. Once they passed, the wooden bridges were set on fire to prevent any ambushes, signaling to Xiang Yu that they had no intention of heading east.
By the time Pei Gong reached Nanzheng, many of his soldiers had deserted, longing to return home. Pei Gong’s advisor, Han Xin, urged him to act swiftly, suggesting, “Xiang Yu has assigned his generals titles, but he is sending you to Nanzheng as a form of exile. The soldiers in your army mostly come from the eastern regions. They long to return home, but you can harness their enthusiasm now to great effect. If we wait until after the world is pacified, it will be too late. We should march east now and seize the opportunity to challenge for power.”
After Xiang Yu exited the Hangu Pass, he ordered the “Righteous Emperor” to relocate, moving him to Chen County in Changsha. This decision gradually led to the betrayal of his ministers, and secretly, Xiang Yu ordered the deaths of King Huai and other prominent figures. Meanwhile, in the Chu kingdom, there was growing discontent. Some generals, like Tian Rong, rebelled against Xiang Yu, seeking to carve out their own power. The stage was set for further power struggles as Xiang Yu’s influence began to erode, and new conflicts arose in the fight for control.
In August, the King of Han adopted Han Xin’s strategy, returning along the same route to Guanzhong to launch a surprise attack on King Zhang Han of Yong. Zhang Han met the Han forces at Chencang, but his army was decisively defeated and forced to retreat. They made a stand at Haozhi but were again defeated, eventually fleeing to Feiqiu. With that, the King of Han subdued the Yong region.
The King of Han advanced eastward toward Xianyang, surrounding King Yong at Feiqiu and sending his generals to seize the land, pacifying the regions of Longxi, Beidi, and Shangjun. Generals Xue Ou and Wang Xi were dispatched to lead troops out of Wuguan, with Wang Ling stationed in Nanyang to assist. They moved toward Pei County to meet with Tai Gong and Empress Lü. Upon hearing of their movements, King Chu sent troops to intercept them at Yangxia, halting the Han advance. In addition, Chu appointed Zheng Chang, the former magistrate of Wu County, as King of Han to counter the Han forces.
In the second year (205 BCE), the King of Han continued his eastward campaign, with Sima Xin, Dong Yi, and Shen Yang, the Kings of Sai, Zhai, and Henan, respectively, submitting to him. However, King Chang of Han refused to surrender, and the King of Han sent Han Xin to defeat him. The conquered lands were reorganized into the prefectures of Longxi, Beidi, Shangjun, Weinan, He Shang, Zhongdi, and others, with Henan established as a new province outside the pass. The title of King of Han was then granted to the former Chancellor of Han, Xin.
The King of Han issued a decree to all generals, promising rewards of 10,000 households to anyone who could bring in 10,000 soldiers or surrender an entire region. Fortresses were built in He Shang, and lands once used by the Qin Dynasty for royal hunting and recreation were now opened for farming. In the first month, King of Han captured Zhang Ping, the brother of King Yong, and granted a general amnesty to all criminals.
After exiting Wuguan and reaching Shan County, the King of Han comforted the elders beyond the pass. Upon his return, Zhang Er came to seek an audience with him, and the King of Han treated him with great kindness.
In the second month, a decree was issued abolishing the Qin sacrificial rites, replacing them with the Han rites.
In the third month, the King of Han crossed the Yellow River at Linjin, with King Wei Bao leading his army in pursuit. The King of Han conquered the province of Henan, captured King Yin, and established Henan as a new province. The army continued southward, crossing Pingyinjin and reaching Luoyang. There, the elder Dong Gong, who oversaw the region’s cultural affairs, confronted the King of Han, informing him of the death of the Righteous Emperor. Upon hearing this, the King of Han, overcome with grief, tore his sleeve and wept bitterly. He immediately ordered three days of mourning for the Righteous Emperor and sent messengers to the lords, announcing, “The lords of the world had all united to support the Righteous Emperor. Now, Xiang Yu has exiled and murdered him in the south—such an act of treason cannot go unpunished. I will personally mourn the Emperor, and all lords must wear white and observe the rites of mourning. I will mobilize the entire army of Guanzhong, gathering soldiers from Henan, Hedong, and Henei to march south along the Yangtze and Han Rivers. I aim to join forces with the lords to punish the murderer, Xiang Yu!”
Meanwhile, Xiang Yu was engaged in a campaign against the state of Qi in the north, where Tian Rong and his forces were engaged in battle at Chengyang. Tian Rong was defeated and fled to Pingyuan, where he was killed by the locals. The various regions of Qi then surrendered to Chu. The Chu army set fire to Qi’s cities and carried off the children of Qi’s people, fueling resentment and leading to another rebellion against Chu. Tian Rong’s brother, Tian Heng, installed Tian Rong’s son, Tian Guang, as King of Qi, and raised an army in Chengyang to rebel against Chu.
Although Xiang Yu was aware that the King of Han had reached the east, he decided to deal with the Qi forces first, intending to confront the Han army only after defeating them. Thus, the King of Han was able to capture Changshan King Zhang Er, Henan King Shen Yang, Han King Zheng Chang, Wei King Wei Bao, and Yin King Ang, along with their armies, and march into Pengcheng. When Xiang Yu learned of this, he quickly left Qi, crossing through Luxian and Hulings, and reached Xiaoxian, where he engaged the Han forces in a fierce battle at Suishui east of Pengcheng. The Chu forces inflicted a crushing defeat on the Han, killing many soldiers, and blocking the Suishui River.
Xiang Yu then sent troops from Pei County to capture the family of the King of Han, including his parents, wife, and children, holding them hostage. Seeing the strength of the Chu army, the other lords, disheartened by the defeat of the Han, abandoned the King of Han and joined forces with Xiang Yu. Sima Xin, King of Sai, fled to Chu.
Lü Hou’s brother, Zhou Lü Hou, stationed the Han army at Xiayi, where the King of Han sought refuge. Gradually, he gathered soldiers and established a base in Dang County. He then led his forces westward through Liang, reaching Yuxian. He sent a messenger to persuade King of Jiujiang, Qing Bu, to rebel against Chu, saying, “If you can convince Qing Bu to rise up, Xiang Yu will be forced to halt his campaign there. If his army is delayed for several months, I will be able to conquer the world.” Following this advice, Qing Bu turned against Chu, and Xiang Yu sent Long Qie to attack him.
When the King of Han suffered defeat at Pengcheng and retreated westward, he sent agents to find his family. Unfortunately, they had already fled, and he could not locate them. Only Xiao Hui was found. In June, he proclaimed Xiao Hui as Crown Prince and granted another amnesty. The Crown Prince was placed in charge of guarding Liyang, while the sons of the lords of Wuzhong were gathered to protect the city. The King of Han then diverted water to flood Feiqiu, forcing its surrender. Zhang Han committed suicide, and Feiqiu was renamed Huali. He ordered the priests to perform the proper sacrifices to Heaven, Earth, the Four Directions, and the Emperor, maintaining rituals on time. Finally, he mobilized the troops from within the pass to defend the borders.
At this time, the King of Jiujiang, Qing Bu, fought against Long Qie but was defeated. He joined the King of Han by taking a small route and aligning with him. The King of Han, now gathering more soldiers and commanding various generals, carried out frequent raids and made significant gains in the region of Xingyang. In a decisive victory between Jing and Suo, the Han forces defeated the Chu army.
Year 3 (204 BCE): The King of Wei, Wei Bao, requested leave to visit his ailing parents. Upon arriving in Wei, he destroyed the crossing points of the Yellow River and defected to Chu, turning against Han. In response, the Han King dispatched Li Shiqi to persuade Wei Bao, but Wei Bao refused to listen. Consequently, the Han King sent General Han Xin to confront him. The Wei army was decisively defeated, and Wei Bao was captured. As a result, the Han forces subdued Wei, establishing three new administrative regions: Hedong, Taiyuan, and Shangdang.
Following this, the Han King ordered Zhang Er and Han Xin to lead their armies towards the city of Jingxing, where they attacked the state of Zhao, killing Chen Yu and King Xie of Zhao. In the following year, Zhang Er was appointed King of Zhao.
The Han forces set up camp to the south of Xingyang, where they constructed a walled passage connecting to the southern banks of the Yellow River to secure provisions from Ao warehouse. For over a year, the Han King and Xiang Yu, the King of Chu, stood in a stalemate. Xiang Yu repeatedly raided Han’s supply lines, leading to a shortage of provisions for the Han army, forcing them into a siege. The Han King sought peace, offering to cede land west of Xingyang to Xiang Yu. However, Xiang Yu rejected the offer.
In a moment of anxiety, the Han King, following the advice of Chen Ping, gave him forty thousand pounds of gold to create a rift between Xiang Yu and his advisor, Fan Zeng. As a result, Xiang Yu grew suspicious of Fan Zeng. Fan Zeng, who had been urging Xiang Yu to capture Xingyang, realizing that he was distrusted, became enraged. He requested to retire due to his age and returned to his hometown. Yet, before reaching Pengcheng, he passed away.
With the Han army facing a critical shortage of provisions, more than 2,000 women donned armor and were released through the eastern gate of the city under the cover of night. As the Chu army pursued them, General Ji Xin took the Han King’s chariot and impersonated him, deceiving the Chu forces. With the Chu army distracted by a false cheer, the Han King managed to escape through the western gate with a small cavalry force.
Before departing, the Han King instructed his officials Zhou Ke, Wei Bao, and Gong Cong to defend Xingyang. However, Zhou Ke and Gong Cong, seeing that Wei Bao had already rebelled, decided to execute him and took control of the city.
The Han King fled to Guanzhong and began gathering troops in preparation for another eastern campaign. Yuan Sheng, a strategist, advised the Han King: “The Han and Chu have been at a stalemate near Xingyang for years, and the Han army is often bogged down by water-based challenges. I suggest that you break out through Wuguan. Xiang Yu will lead his army southward, and you should then fortify your defenses, avoid battle, and allow Xingyang and Chenggao to rest. You can send Han Xin to pacify the northern regions and link up with the states of Yan and Qi. Once this is accomplished, you may advance on Xingyang at your leisure. By then, the Chu forces will be divided, and your army will have time to recuperate and defeat Xiang Yu with certainty.”
Heeding this advice, the Han King led his army from Wancheng to Yecheng, steadily gathering more soldiers along the way.
Upon hearing of the Han King’s movement toward Yancheng, Xiang Yu moved south to confront him. The Han King reinforced his defenses and refrained from engaging. Meanwhile, Peng Yue crossed the Sui River and, with generals Xiang Sheng and Xue Gong, fought a decisive battle near Xia Pi. Peng Yue’s forces decisively defeated the Chu army, forcing Xiang Yu to shift his focus eastward to counter this threat. As the Han King moved northward to Chenggao, Xiang Yu, after dealing with Peng Yue, learned that the Han King had established himself there, prompting him to advance westward to capture Xingyang.
The Han King, in retreat, only took his charioteer Teng Gong and managed to escape north across the Yellow River, continuing on through the night and spending the evening in Xiuwu. He claimed to be a messenger and the next morning entered Zhang Er and Han Xin’s camps, seizing command from them. He also sent Zhang Er northward to recruit soldiers and dispatched Han Xin to launch an attack on the state of Qi.
In the wake of these developments, the Han King’s forces began to recover their strength. He moved southward to approach the Yellow River, preparing for another clash with Xiang Yu. Meanwhile, his general, Zhang Zhong, advised the Han King to deepen his trenches and increase the fortifications at their current position, so as to avoid direct conflict with the Chu forces. The Han King followed this counsel and dispatched Lu Wan and Liu Jia with 20,000 troops and several hundred cavalry to cross Baima Jin and enter Chu territory, where they joined Peng Yue’s forces. Together, they achieved a victory over the Chu army at Yan County and proceeded to capture more than ten cities in Liang.
As Han Xin moved eastward to attack Qi, the Han King secretly sent Li Shiqi to persuade Qi King Tian Guang to defect from Chu, thus forming an alliance with Han to jointly fight Xiang Yu. Han Xin, seeing this, initially considered halting his advance into Qi. However, strategist Kuai Tong persuaded him to continue. Thus, Han Xin launched an attack on Qi and succeeded in overcoming their forces. Meanwhile, the Qi King, in a desperate attempt to resist, executed Li Shiqi by boiling him in a large cauldron and fled eastward to Gaomi.
Upon hearing of Han Xin’s successes in northern Qi and Zhao, Xiang Yu sent generals Long Qie and Zhou Lan to confront him. However, Han Xin’s forces decisively defeated them, with his cavalry commander Guan Ying leading a crushing victory, killing Long Qie. As a result, Qi King Tian Guang fled to Pengcheng. In the meantime, Peng Yue’s army continued to disrupt the Chu supply lines in Liang, further weakening their hold.
Year 4 (203 BCE): Xiang Yu, speaking to his General Cao Jiu, instructed him to guard Chenggao and avoid engaging with the Han forces, as he was confident that he could pacify Liang within 15 days and then return to deal with the Han. During this time, the Han forces repeatedly challenged the Chu army, but the Chu army remained passive, refusing to fight. Eventually, after several days of Han provocations, Cao Jiu, in frustration, led his forces across the Sishui River. The Han army launched a surprise attack, decisively defeating the Chu forces and capturing all of their gold and treasures. General Cao Jiu and Sima Xin committed suicide by hanging themselves on the banks of the Sishui.
Upon reaching Suiyang, Xiang Yu, hearing of the defeat of his forces, rushed back, but by then the Han army had retreated to the safety of the deep mountain passes. Han Xin’s victory in Qi led him to send a message to the Han King, stating that as Qi bordered Chu, his position was precarious and needed a ruling figure. The Han King, after considering the situation, decided to formally appoint Han Xin as King of Qi.
Hearing that Long Que’s army had been defeated, Xiang Yu became fearful and sent Wu She, a man from Xutai, to persuade Han Xin to rebel against the Han. However, Han Xin refused.
The armies of Chu and Han had been at a stalemate for a long time, with neither side able to secure a decisive victory. The younger soldiers grew weary of the prolonged campaigning, and the elderly and weak were exhausted from the burden of transporting provisions. Han and Xiang Yu communicated across the Guangwu Gorge. Xiang Yu proposed a one-on-one duel to settle their dispute. Han, however, took the opportunity to list Xiang Yu’s numerous transgressions:
“Initially, both you and I received the orders of King Huai, agreeing that the first to enter the pass would rule the central plains. You violated this agreement and allowed me to become the king of Shu, which is your first crime. You, under the pretense of King Huai’s orders, killed General Song Yi of the Qing army and promoted yourself to General. This is your second crime. You were sent to aid Zhao but instead used the army to invade the pass without authorization, which is your third crime. King Huai had instructed that no burning, killing, or plundering should take place upon entering the pass, but you destroyed the Qin palace, desecrated Emperor Qin’s tomb, and looted the land, which is your fourth crime. You murdered the already surrendered Qin prince, Yi Ying, which is your fifth crime. You deceitfully buried 200,000 Qin soldiers alive at Xin’an and rewarded their commanders, which is your sixth crime. You granted favorable lands to your own generals, but displaced the former kings of the states, such as Tian Shi, Zhao Xie, and Han Guang, provoking rebellion, which is your seventh crime. You expelled the rightful emperor, Yi, from Pengcheng and established your own capital while seizing the lands of the Han king, which is your eighth crime. You secretly killed the rightful emperor, Yi, in the south, which is your ninth crime. Lastly, as a vassal, you killed your liege, murdered surrendering subjects, and acted unjustly and deceitfully. You are guilty of extreme treason. Now, I lead the righteous armies and the vassal lords to seek justice for your crimes. It need not take a confrontation between us; your execution will come by the hands of those you’ve wronged.”
Xiang Yu was enraged and ordered an ambush. A booby-trapped arrow struck Han in the chest. Despite the wound, Han, in a defiant tone, said, “This robber has struck my toe!” Han’s injury worsened, and he fell ill. Zhang Liang insisted that he rise and tour the army to boost morale, ensuring that the Chu army did not gain the advantage. Han, despite his condition, toured the camps but was forced to return to Chenggao as his illness worsened.
After recovering, Han proceeded westward to the Guanyin Pass, where he greeted the locals, held a banquet, and executed the former Sai King, Sima Xin, displaying his head as a public warning. He stayed at Liyang for four days before returning to his army, now stationed at Guangwu.
During this time, Peng Yue, with his forces stationed at Liangdi, continually harassed the Chu army, cutting off their food supplies. Tian Heng joined Peng Yue in support. Xiang Yu, now desperate, agreed to a peace settlement with Han, dividing the empire at the Honggou River—west to Han and east to Chu. He returned Han’s family, and the soldiers of Han cheered in victory, while Xiang Yu returned to his camp.
Though Xiang Yu withdrew his forces eastward, Han, guided by the strategies of Zhang Liang and Chen Ping, chose to seize the opportunity while the Chu forces were fatigued and running low on supplies. Han pursued Xiang Yu’s retreating forces, setting up camp south of Yangxia. Han intended to join forces with the kings of Qi and Peng Yue to mount a unified assault on Xiang Yu’s forces. When Han arrived at Guling, however, the armies of Han, led by Han Xin and Peng Yue, were not present for the planned meeting. The Chu forces met Han’s army and delivered a crushing defeat. Han was forced to retreat to his encampment and fortify his position.
Using Zhang Liang’s counsel, Han sent envoys to give land to Han Xin and Peng Yue, thus dividing their forces to continue their respective campaigns. In the meantime, Han Xin and Peng Yue returned to join forces with Han at Guling. The two armies then advanced into Chu territory, where Han Xin laid siege to Shouchun.
In the fifth year (202 BCE), Han, with his allies and vassal armies, launched a decisive attack on Chu’s forces at Gaixia. Han Xin, commanding 300,000 troops, faced off against Xiang Yu’s army of about 100,000. Han Xin’s left flank was commanded by General Kong and the right by General Fei. Han led the central force with General Zhou Bo and General Chai following closely. Initially, Han Xin’s forces suffered setbacks but quickly regained their advantage. Kong and Fei’s forces flanked Chu’s left and right, forcing Xiang Yu’s army into retreat. As the Han army sang songs from the Chu region, Xiang Yu’s troops, believing the Han had fully taken over Chu, lost heart and fled. Han Xin pursued the retreating Xiang Yu, defeating him at Dongcheng and killing 80,000 Chu soldiers, thus finally securing the region.
Only the people of Lu County remained loyal to Xiang Yu, resisting surrender until Han presented Xiang Yu’s severed head to the elders of Lu. Finally, they capitulated. Han then, in accordance with the customs of Lu, buried Xiang Yu in Gucheng, before returning to Dingtao and seizing military authority from King Han Xin of Qi.
In the first month of the following year, Han’s vassals and generals collectively petitioned him to ascend as Emperor. Han, however, declined, stating, “I have heard that the title of emperor is reserved for the virtuous and capable. Empty titles mean little to me. I am not fit to bear the title of emperor.” The ministers responded, “Your Majesty rose from the common people, overthrew the tyrants, and pacified the world. You have rewarded your loyal subjects with lands and titles. If you refuse to accept the imperial title, no one will believe in the legitimacy of the rewards. We, your ministers, are willing to die in our request.”
After repeated refusals, Emperor Gaozu finally said, “Since you all believe this is the right course, I will do so for the sake of the country.” On the day of Jiawu, Emperor Gaozu ascended the throne at the northern banks of the Fushui River.
The emperor mentioned that the rightful Emperor Yi had no heirs. Because King Han Xin was well-versed in the customs of Chu, he was reappointed as the King of Chu, with his capital at Xiapi. Peng Yue, the Marquis of Cheng, was made the King of Liang, with his capital at Dingtao. King Han Xin remained as the King of Han, with his capital at Yangdi. Wu Rui, the King of Hengshan, was reassigned as the King of Changsha, with his capital at Linxiang. Mei Yi, a general under the vassal of Fan Jun, who had made notable contributions by accompanying Han forces into the Wuguan Pass, was deeply honored by the emperor. The titles of the King of Huainan, King of Yan, and King of Zhao, held by Qian Bu, Zang Tu, and Zhang Ao, respectively, remained unchanged.
With the realm now unified, Emperor Gaozu established his capital at Luoyang. All vassal kings paid homage and swore allegiance to him. Former King Gong Huan of Linjiang, who had remained loyal to Xiang Yu and rebelled against the Han, was surrounded by Lu Wan and Liu Jia. However, they were unable to capture him. Several months later, Gong Huan surrendered and was executed in Luoyang.
In May, the soldiers were dismissed and sent home. Sons of the vassal kings who stayed in the central region were exempt from taxes and corvée labor for twelve years, while those returning to their fiefdoms were granted a six-year exemption, with the state providing them with provisions for one year.
Emperor Gaozu hosted a banquet at the Southern Palace of Luoyang. He said, “Noble lords and generals, you must not hide the truth from me. I ask you, why was I able to unify the empire? And why did Xiang Yu lose the throne?” Gao Qi and Wang Ling answered, “Your Majesty, you are strong-willed and often insult others, while Xiang Yu was benevolent and caring. However, Your Majesty sent troops to seize cities and territories, rewarding those who surrendered with land and benefits, thus sharing the spoils of victory with the people. On the other hand, Xiang Yu was jealous of the capable, suspicious of the talented, and denied rewards to those who helped him win victories. He took land but offered no benefits, and this is why he lost the throne.”
Emperor Gaozu replied, “You know part of the reason, but not all. If it comes to strategic planning and decisive victories, I am no match for Zhang Liang. If it comes to defending the state, pacifying the people, ensuring the transportation of provisions and maintaining supply routes, I cannot compare to Xiao He. If it comes to commanding a large army and ensuring victory in battle, I fall short of Han Xin. These three are exceptional men, and yet I was able to employ them. That is why I succeeded. Xiang Yu, though he had the capable Fan Zeng, failed to trust him. That is the reason he was captured by me.”
Emperor Gaozu planned to make Luoyang his permanent capital, but Liu Jing of Qi and the Marquis of Li Zhang Liang persuaded him to move the capital to the Central Plain. That very day, Emperor Gaozu set out and entered the pass to establish his new capital. In June, he granted a general amnesty to the whole empire.
In October, King Zang Tu of Yan rebelled and captured Dai. Emperor Gaozu personally led an army to suppress the rebellion and captured Zang Tu. He immediately appointed Lu Wan as the King of Yan and sent Prime Minister Fan Kuai to lead forces to conquer Dai.
In the fall of that year, Li Ji rebelled. Emperor Gaozu again took the lead in battle and defeated Li Ji, who fled. Li Ji had originally served under Xiang Yu, and when Xiang Yu fell, Li Ji, who had been the magistrate of Chen County, did not follow him and instead surrendered to Gaozu. Gaozu made him the Marquis of Yingchuan. After returning to Luoyang, Gaozu summoned all the vassal lords listed in the register, but Li Ji, fearful, rebelled.
In the sixth year (201 BCE), Emperor Gaozu visited his father, Taigong, once every five days, following the customary rites of a son meeting his father. The household steward advised Taigong, saying, “There cannot be two suns in the sky, and there cannot be two rulers on earth. Although the emperor is your son in the family, he is the ruler of all under heaven. You, as his father, are his subject when it comes to state affairs. How could the ruler of the world bow to his subject? This would undermine the emperor’s authority.”
The next time Emperor Gaozu visited his father, Taigong, holding a broom, backed away toward the door. Surprised, Emperor Gaozu quickly alighted from his carriage and helped his father. Taigong said, “The emperor is the ruler of all people, and he cannot disrupt the order of the world for my sake.” Emperor Gaozu was deeply moved by these words and respectfully declared Taigong as the Retired Emperor. He was also greatly impressed by the steward’s advice, rewarding him with five hundred jin of gold.
In December, a report was submitted to Emperor Gaozu, informing him of King Han Xin’s conspiracy to rebel. Emperor Gaozu consulted his ministers for a course of action, and each of them eagerly volunteered to lead the campaign. Ultimately, Gaozu followed the strategy proposed by Chen Ping, feigning a visit to the Yunmeng Marsh and summoning the vassal kings at Chen County. When King Han Xin came to greet him, he was seized. On the same day, a general amnesty was declared across the empire.
Tian Ken came to congratulate the emperor, and, as a gesture of goodwill, offered advice: “Your Majesty, now that you have captured Han Xin and established your capital in the Central Plains, you must consider the strategic advantages of the Qin and Qi territories. The Qin region is an area of immense natural fortification, surrounded by mountains and rivers, with a thousand-mile boundary separating it from the eastern lands. Even if the eastern states were to amass a million soldiers, only 20,000 troops would suffice to defend Qin. Similarly, Qi, with its advantageous terrain—eastward to Langya, southward to Mount Tai, westward to the Yellow River, and northward to the Bohai Sea—has a similarly commanding position. The land stretches 2,000 miles in every direction, and the distance between Qi and its neighboring states is over a thousand miles, making it impervious to attack. Thus, Qi could stand as the equal of Qin, referred to as the Eastern and Western Qins. If Your Majesty did not have a close heir, no one could be trusted to govern as the King of Qi.” Emperor Gaozu responded, “Well said,” and rewarded Tian Ken with 500 jin of gold.
Within a few days, Han Xin was granted the title of Marquis of Huaiyin, and his former domain was divided into two smaller fiefdoms. Emperor Gaozu remarked that General Liu Jia had earned numerous victories and, therefore, appointed him as the King of Jing, with jurisdiction over the area east of the Huai River. Liu Jia’s brother, Liu Jiao, was made the King of Chu, with dominion over the lands west of the river. The emperor also appointed his son Liu Fei as the King of Qi, with control over seventy cities. Those who spoke the dialect of Qi were considered subjects of Qi. Emperor Gaozu then evaluated the achievements of various nobles, issuing rewards and granting official seals of nobility, half of which remained in the imperial court, while the other half was given to the recipients as proof of their titles. Han Xin was relocated to Taiyuan Commandery.
In the seventh year (200 BCE), the Xiongnu attacked Han Xin in Mayi. Han Xin then conspired with the Xiongnu in Taiyuan. His officers, Man Chuchen and Wang Huang, based in Baichu City, declared Zhao Li, a former general of the former Zhao state, as their king, and rebelled against the throne. Emperor Gaozu personally led an army to quell the revolt. During the campaign, the soldiers suffered severe cold, with many losing fingers to frostbite. After a long journey, they arrived at Pingcheng, where the Xiongnu surrounded the city. The siege lasted for seven days before they withdrew. Gaozu ordered Fan Kuai to remain in Pingcheng to stabilize the region and appointed Liu Zhong, his elder brother, as King of Dai.
In February, Emperor Gaozu departed from Pingcheng, traveling through Zhao and Luoyang to reach Chang’an. By this time, the Chang Le Palace in Chang’an had been completed, and officials, including Prime Minister Xiao He, had relocated there to govern.
In the eighth year (199 BCE), Emperor Gaozu again led an eastern campaign, pursuing the remaining rebels loyal to Han Xin in the Dongyuan region.
Prime Minister Xiao He oversaw the construction of the Weiyang Palace, which included the Eastern Gate, Northern Gate, front hall, armory, and granaries. Upon returning, Emperor Gaozu was enraged upon seeing the grandeur of the palace. He confronted Xiao He, saying, “The realm is still in turmoil, and after years of exhausting warfare, victory is not yet assured. Why, then, should such an extravagant palace be built?” Xiao He replied, “It is precisely because the world is not yet at peace that we must seize this opportunity to construct the palace. Moreover, the emperor’s residence should be magnificent, as only such grandeur can establish the emperor’s authority over the realm and prevent future rulers from surpassing it.” Emperor Gaozu was appeased by Xiao He’s reasoning.
As Gaozu traveled to Dongyuan, he passed through Bairen County, where Zhao Xiangguo, Guan Gao, and others had set an ambush with the intent to assassinate him. Gaozu had planned to stay the night in Bairen, but a thought crossed his mind: the name “Bairen” sounded similar to “bore ren,” meaning “to press others.” He chose not to stay there. Liu Zhong, the King of Dai, fled his kingdom and surrendered in Luoyang. Gaozu stripped him of his title and reappointed him as Marquis of Heyang.
In the ninth year (198 BCE), the conspiracy by Zhao Xiangguo Guan Gao and his associates to assassinate Gaozu was uncovered. Their families were exterminated, and Zhao Wang Ao’s title was revoked, with him being re-designated as Marquis of Xianping. During this year, the aristocratic families of the Chu state—such as the Zhao, Qu, Jing, and Huai clans—and the former noble families of Qi, including the Tian family, were relocated to the Central Plains.
The Weiyang Palace was completed. Emperor Gaozu hosted a grand banquet at the front hall, where he held a jade wine cup and stood to toast the Retired Emperor, offering him his wishes for longevity. He remarked, “In the past, many believed I lacked talent, relying on nothing but hard work. Yet now, when comparing my accomplishments to Liu Zhong’s, who has more?” The courtiers joyfully shouted “Long live the emperor,” and laughter filled the hall.
In the tenth year (197 BCE), in October, the Kings of Huainan, Liang, Yan, Jing, Chu, Qi, and Changsha all came to Chang Le Palace to pay their respects to Emperor Gaozu. The country remained peaceful throughout the spring and summer.
In July, the Retired Emperor passed away in the Liyang Palace. The Kings of Chu and Liang attended the funeral, and prisoners in Liyang were granted amnesty. The city of Liyang was renamed Xinfeng.
In August, Chen Xi, the Zhao Prime Minister, led a rebellion in Dai. Emperor Gaozu said, “Chen Xi once served me with great loyalty. I had appointed him as a noble and entrusted him with the defense of Dai. Now, he has turned against me and joined forces with Wang Huang and others to plunder Dai. However, the officials and people of Dai are innocent, and they shall be pardoned.” In September, Emperor Gaozu personally led an army eastward to suppress Chen Xi. Upon reaching Handan, the emperor, pleased with the situation, remarked, “I now know how to deal with him.” He then sent gold to entice Chen Xi’s officers, many of whom defected.
In the eleventh year (196 BCE), while Emperor Gaozu was still engaged in the campaign against Chen Xi and his forces in Handan, Chen Xi’s officer, Hou Chang, led more than 10,000 troops on mobile operations across various regions. Wang Huang was stationed at Qu Ni, while Zhang Chun crossed the Yellow River and attacked Liaocheng. Han generals Guo Meng and the commanders from Qi mounted an offensive against them and decisively defeated them. The Grand Marshal, Zhou Bo, advanced from Taiyuan and pacified the Dai region. Upon reaching Mayi, Zhou Bo encountered strong resistance from the rebel forces, who refused to surrender, and he destroyed the city.
Chen Xi’s officer, Zhao Li, entrenched himself at Dongyuan, and Gaozu launched an attack, but failed to capture the city. After more than a month of siege, the soldiers of Dongyuan insulted Emperor Gaozu from the city walls, which greatly angered him. Once the city fell, he ordered the execution of those who had insulted him, while sparing those who had not. Subsequently, the area north of Changshan in Zhao was incorporated into the Dai kingdom, and his son, Liu Heng, was made King of Dai, with the capital established at Jinyang.
That spring, Han Xin, the Marquis of Huaiyin, conspired to rebel in the Central Plains and was subsequently executed along with his entire family.
In the summer, King Peng Yue of Liang also rebelled, and his title was revoked. He was exiled to the Shu region, but soon after, he attempted another revolt and was executed along with his family. Emperor Gaozu then appointed his son, Liu Hui, as the King of Liang, and his son, Liu You, as the King of Huaiyang.
In the autumn, in the seventh month, King Qingbu of Huainan rebelled, annexing the territory of King Liu Jia of Jing. He then crossed the Huai River to the north, forcing King Liu Jiao of Chu to flee to Xue. Emperor Gaozu personally led an army to suppress the rebellion, appointing his son, Liu Chang, as King of Huainan.
In the twelfth year (195 BCE), in the tenth month, Gaozu defeated Qingbu’s forces at Huizhuo, forcing Qingbu to flee. Emperor Gaozu sent other generals to continue the pursuit.
On his way back to the capital, while passing through Pei County, Emperor Gaozu stopped to rest. He hosted a banquet at the Pei Palace, inviting old friends and local elders to drink and enjoy themselves. He selected 120 young children from Pei to teach them songs. As the wine flowed freely, Emperor Gaozu played the zhu (a type of ancient stringed instrument) and sang a song of his own composition: “The great winds rise, the clouds soar, the sound of my power echoes across the land, and I return to my homeland. How shall the valiant guard the four corners?” The children sang along, and the emperor, caught up in the emotion of the moment, danced and shed tears. He addressed the elders of Pei County, saying, “The wanderer always yearns for home. Though I have established my capital in the Central Plains, my soul will forever long for this land. It was from here, as the Marquis of Pei, that I began my campaign to overthrow tyranny and ultimately achieved the empire. I shall make Pei County my fief forever, exempting its people from taxes and corvée labor, for generations to come.” The elders and relatives of Pei County joyfully celebrated, toasting and reminiscing, their spirits lifted by the emperor’s words.
After more than ten days, when it was time for the emperor to depart, the elders of Pei insisted he stay longer. Gaozu replied, “My retinue is too large, and you cannot support us.” As he left, the entire city of Pei emptied, with the people gathering to present gifts of cattle and wine. Gaozu stopped once more and set up a camp to drink for three days. The elders of Pei County again knelt, requesting that he grant the same tax exemptions to Feng County as he had to Pei County. Gaozu said, “Feng is where I grew up, and I can never forget it. The only reason I had to oppose them was because the people of Feng sided with Yong Chi in rebelling against me and assisting King Wei.” The elders persisted, and finally, Gaozu agreed to extend the same privileges to Feng County. He also appointed Liu Bi, the Marquis of Pei, as King of Wu.
The Han generals stationed at the Tao River fought Qingbu’s forces both north and south of the river, defeating them entirely and pursuing them to Poyang, where they captured Qingbu and executed him.
Fan Kuai led another force to pacify the Dai region, eventually killing Chen Xi in Dangcheng.
In the eleventh month, Emperor Gaozu returned to Chang’an after suppressing Qingbu’s rebellion. In the twelfth month, he remarked, “Emperor Qin Shi Huang, King Chen She of Chu, King Wei Anxi, King Min of Qi, and King Zhao Dao of Xiang all left no heirs. I have granted ten households to the tomb keepers of each of their graves, twenty households to the tomb keeper of Qin Shi Huang, and five households to the tomb keeper of Wei Gongzi Wuji.” Officials and citizens from the Dai region who had been oppressed by Chen Xi and Zhao Li were granted amnesty. Chen Xi’s defectors revealed that King Lu Wan of Yan had previously sent envoys to secretly conspire with Chen Xi. Emperor Gaozu sent Pi Yanghou, Shen Shiqi, to summon King Lu Wan to the capital. Lu Wan claimed illness and refused to come. When Shen Shiqi returned, he reported that there was substantial evidence of Lu Wan’s treason. In February, Emperor Gaozu dispatched Fan Kuai and Zhou Bo to lead an army against King Lu Wan of Yan, granting amnesty to those in Yan who had participated in the rebellion. He then appointed his son, Liu Jian, as King of Yan.
When Emperor Gaozu waged war against Qing Bu, he was struck by an arrow, and on his return journey, he fell ill. His condition grew severe, prompting Empress Lü to summon a skilled physician. Upon his arrival at the palace, the emperor inquired about his prognosis. The doctor replied, “The illness is treatable.” In response, Gaozu scolded him, saying, “I, a mere commoner, armed with only a sword, was able to conquer the land and establish this empire. Was that not the will of Heaven? A person’s fate is determined by Heaven itself; what use is your expertise, even if you were Bian Que?” With that, he dismissed the doctor, awarding him fifty jin of gold as compensation.
Soon after, Empress Lü asked, “Your Majesty, after a hundred years, if Minister Xiao also passes, who should succeed him as Chancellor?” Gaozu replied, “Cao Can would be suitable.” She then asked about the succession after Cao Can, to which Gaozu answered, “Wang Ling could take over, although he is somewhat rigid and unyielding. Chen Ping could assist him. Chen Ping is highly intelligent but lacks the ability to carry heavy burdens alone. Zhou Bo is steady and virtuous but lacks literary talent; nevertheless, it is Zhou Bo who will stabilize the Liu family’s rule, and he should be appointed Grand Chancellor.” Empress Lü pressed further, asking about the future, but Gaozu replied, “As for what comes after, it is beyond your knowledge.”
Lu Wan, with several thousand cavalry, waited on the borders, hoping that once the emperor recovered, he would personally travel to Chang’an to offer his apologies.
On the Jiachen day of April, Gaozu passed away in the Changle Palace. Four days passed before the news of his death was officially announced. Empress Lü and Shen Shiqi discussed the matter, saying, “Those generals who were once commoners but were later registered alongside the emperor, and who later pledged allegiance to the north, often show dissatisfaction. Now they must serve the new, young emperor. If we don’t eliminate their entire families, peace will never be restored.” Someone overheard this conversation and informed General Li Shang, who went to see Shen Shiqi, saying, “I hear the emperor has been dead for four days, yet no announcement has been made, and there are plans to kill all the generals. If this is true, the empire will be in danger. Chen Ping and Guan Ying are stationed with an army of 100,000 in Xingyang. Fan Kuan and Zhou Bo command 200,000 soldiers to pacify the Yan and Dai regions. If they learn of the emperor’s death and the generals’ impending executions, they will unite their forces and march back to attack Guanzhong. When that happens, ministers will rebel in the court, and the lords will rise in revolt. The collapse of the empire will be imminent.” Shen Shiqi informed Empress Lü, and so, on the Dingwei day, the official announcement of Gaozu’s death was made, and a general amnesty was declared.
Upon hearing the news of the emperor’s passing, Lu Wan fled to the Xiongnu.
On the Bingyin day, the emperor was buried in Changling. After the coffin was sealed, the crown prince went to the Grand Emperor’s temple. The ministers all agreed, “Gaozu, a commoner by birth, rose to establish order in a chaotic world, returning the country to the proper path. He is the founding emperor of the Han dynasty, and his contributions are unparalleled.” A posthumous title of “Emperor Gao” was conferred. The crown prince succeeded to the throne as Emperor Hui of Han. A decree was issued to have temples dedicated to Gaozu built in all the counties and kingdoms, with annual sacrifices held in his honor.
In the fifth year of Emperor Hui’s reign (190 BC), the emperor, remembering Gaozu’s fondness for Peixian during his lifetime, decreed that Pei Palace would become Gaozu’s primary temple. The 120 children who had been taught songs by Gaozu were tasked with playing music and singing in the temple. As positions became vacant, they were to be filled.
Gaozu had eight sons: his eldest, Liu Fei, was the King of Qi; the second, Emperor Hui, was the son of Empress Lü; the third, Liu Rui, was the Prince of Zhao, the son of Consort Qi; the fourth, Liu Heng, later known as Emperor Wen of Han, was the son of Empress Bo; the fifth, Liu Hui, was the King of Liang, later reappointed as the King of Zhao during Lü’s reign; the sixth, Liu You, was the Prince of Huaiyang, also later reappointed as the King of Zhao; the seventh, Liu Chang, was the King of Huainan; and the eighth, Liu Jian, was the King of Yan.
The Grand Historian remarked, “The politics of the Xia dynasty were characterized by loyalty and simplicity. The flaw of loyalty and simplicity was that the people became rough and disrespectful, so the Yin dynasty replaced them with respect. The flaw of respect was that the people began to believe in spirits and ghosts, so the Zhou dynasty replaced them with ritual propriety. The flaw of ritual propriety was that the people lost sincerity. To correct this lack of sincerity, nothing could surpass loyalty and simplicity. Therefore, the methods of governance used by the founding rulers of the Xia, Yin, and Zhou dynasties seemed to follow a cyclical pattern, continually returning to the same point. Between the Zhou and Qin dynasties, the issue was an excessive focus on ritual propriety. The Qin dynasty not only failed to correct this flaw, but instead made the legal punishments even more brutal, which was a great mistake. The rise of the Han dynasty, while inheriting the political flaws of the previous dynasties, made changes that prevented the common people from becoming weary, in line with the cyclical laws of nature. The Han dynasty set October as the beginning of the year, and lords were required to visit the capital to pay tribute to the emperor every year in October. They regulated the dress of the emperor’s chariot, ensuring that it was lined with yellow satin and adorned with decorative wooden ornaments made from cow tails or pheasant feathers. Gaozu was buried in Changling.”