According to The Book of Xia, Emperor Yu’s efforts to control the great flood lasted for thirteen years. During this time, he passed by his own home without ever stopping to visit his family. On land, he traveled by cart; by water, he used boats; on muddy paths, he rode on sledges; and in the mountains, he used a sedan chair. He traversed every region, thus delineating the boundaries of the Nine Provinces. Adapting to the terrain, he dredged silted rivers and set tax rates according to the natural resources of the land. He facilitated the smooth flow of roads throughout the Nine Provinces, built embankments to manage the wetlands, and assessed the elevation of the mountains. However, the Yellow River still overflowed, causing immense damage to China.
In response, Yu concentrated his efforts on controlling the Yellow River, directing its flow from Mount Jishi through Longmen, then south to Huayin County. It continued eastward, passing through Dizhushan, Mengjin, and Luoyu, finally reaching Daping Mountain. Yu concluded that the land above Daping was too elevated and the water flow too swift for it to pass through the flat lands to the east of Daping. This would frequently cause embankments to collapse, resulting in floods. Therefore, he divided the river into two branches to mitigate its power, diverting it to the north to flow through the higher terrain of Jizhou. The water passed through areas of significant rainfall, then into the vast wetlands, where it merged with nine large rivers, all flowing into the Bohai Sea.
The rivers of the Nine Provinces were now navigable, the vast marshes were embanked, and the lands under the rule of the Huaxia nations were stabilized. This monumental achievement benefitted the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties for generations.
Later, from below Xingyang, water from the river was diverted southeastward to form the Honggou Canal, connecting the states of Song, Zheng, Chen, Cai, Cao, and Wei. These canals intersected with various water systems such as the Ji, Ru, Huai, and Si rivers. In the Chu region, canals were constructed to link the western regions between the Han River and Yunmeng Marsh, and the eastern region between the Yangtze and Huai Rivers. In Wu, waterways were carved between the Three Rivers and Five Lakes. In Qi, canals were constructed between the Zai and Ji rivers. In Shu, Governor Li Bing excavated the Li Du channel to divert water and prevent flooding caused by foam. Additionally, two tributaries were dredged near Chengdu to aid irrigation.
These canals were deep enough for boats to pass, and the surplus water was used for irrigation, which greatly benefited the people. In regions where the canals passed, additional smaller canals were often dug for irrigation purposes, with such projects numbering in the thousands. Although small in scale, they were nonetheless significant.
In Ye County, Ximen Bao constructed a canal from the Zhang River to irrigate the farmland, which helped the Wei Kingdom’s He Nei region thrive.
Hearing that the Qin Kingdom was keen to invest in novel infrastructure projects, the Han Kingdom sought to deplete Qin’s resources, rendering it incapable of waging war against the states of Shandong. Thus, they sent the engineer Zheng Guo to persuade the Qin court to dig through the Jing River, creating a water channel that would run from the western side of Zhongshan (modern-day Jingyang in Shaanxi) to Hukou, flowing eastward to the Luo River for over three hundred miles, intended to irrigate farmland. Although the canal was incomplete and Zheng’s true intentions were discovered, he argued, “At first, I acted as a spy for Han, but once the canal is finished, it will indeed benefit Qin.” The Qin rulers agreed with his reasoning and allowed the project to proceed. Once completed, the canal diverted the muddy and silty waters of the Jing River to irrigate over forty thousand acres of low-lying, saline land. The yield per acre reached six stones and four dou. As a result, the fertile lands of Guanzhong were no longer plagued by famine, and the Qin state grew strong. Eventually, it conquered other states, and the canal was named the Zhengguo Canal in his honor.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, thirty-nine years later, during Emperor Wen’s reign, a breach occurred in the Yellow River embankment near Suanzao County, flooding eastward and breaching the Golden Dam. The Eastern Region mobilized soldiers to seal the breach.
Over forty years later, during the reign of Emperor Yuan Guang of the current dynasty, another breach occurred at the Hukou section of the Yellow River, flooding southeastward into the Juye Marsh, thus connecting the Huai and Si rivers. The emperor ordered officials Ji An and Zheng to mobilize laborers and convicts to block the breach, but even after doing so, it was often washed away. At the time, the chancellor was Duke Tian Fen of Wuan, whose fief was Shuxian County. Located to the north of the Yellow River, Shuxian suffered no flooding from the breach and enjoyed good harvests. Therefore, Duke Tian Fen advised the emperor, saying, “The breaches of the rivers are a matter of Heaven, and it is not wise to force a human solution. Even if we seal the breach, it may not align with the will of Heaven.” Other officials, skilled in cloud divination and numerology, echoed this sentiment. As a result, the emperor ceased to insist on the sealing of the breach for a long time.
At that time, Zheng, who was serving as the Grand Minister of Agriculture, said, “In the past, grain transported from the eastern provinces by water was carried upriver along the Wei River to Chang’an, which took about six months. The total distance was over 900 miles, with many difficult sections along the way. If we were to construct a canal from Chang’an to divert the Wei River, following the southern mountains down to the Yellow River, the distance would be just over 300 miles. It would be a straight route, making it easier for boats to navigate, and I estimate the grain ships could complete the journey in just three months. Moreover, the canal would irrigate over 10,000 acres of farmland along its course. This would not only reduce the number of soldiers needed for transporting the grain, saving costs, but it would also enrich the farmland in Guanzhong, allowing for greater grain production.”
The emperor considered this suggestion reasonable and ordered Xu Bobiao, a hydraulic engineer from Qi, to survey the land and determine the course of the canal. Afterward, he mobilized tens of thousands of soldiers to dig the canal. The project took three years to complete, and once the canal was operational, it greatly facilitated the transport of grain. Over time, more canals were constructed, and the local people who lived along the canals were able to benefit from the irrigation of their fields.
Later, the Governor of Hedong, Fan Xi, suggested, “Every year, over a million bushels of grain are transported from Shandong to the west, entering the capital through the dangerous shipping route at Dizhuzhi, where many boats are wrecked and lives lost. The cost is also exorbitant. If we were to dig a canal to divert the Fen River to irrigate the lands of Pishi and Fenyin, and channel the Yellow River water to irrigate the lands of Fenyin and Pusai, we could potentially reclaim 5,000 acres of abandoned land along the riverbanks. These lands were once wastelands where people only grazed livestock, but if irrigated, they could yield over two million bushels of grain. This grain would be transported along the Wei River to Chang’an, and it would be just as good as the grain harvested directly from Guanzhong, without needing to rely on the dangerous Dizhuzhi route.”
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The emperor agreed with the proposal and mobilized tens of thousands of soldiers to dig the canal and reclaim the land. However, a few years later, the Yellow River changed course, and the canal ran dry. Those who had farmed the reclaimed land struggled to repay the seeds they had been lent by the government. Over time, the canal land became unusable, and the court redistributed the land to the people who had migrated from the Yue region, allowing them to cultivate it and generate a small amount of revenue through taxes.
Later, someone submitted a petition advocating for the improvement of the Baoxie Road and the transportation of grain. The emperor entrusted the matter to the Imperial Censor Zhang Tang. After a thorough investigation, Zhang Tang reported, “The old road from Hanzhong to Shu has many steep hills and winding paths, making the journey long and difficult. However, if we were to dig the Baoxie Road, the route would be nearly 400 miles shorter. Additionally, Baoshui and Mianshui are connected, as are Xieshui and Weishui, making it possible for grain boats to travel along these waterways. The boats would sail up Mianshui from Nanyang, enter Baoshui, disembark, and then travel by cart for over 100 miles to Xieshui, where they would board ships again to sail down to the Wei River. This route would not only make it easier to transport grain from Hanzhong, but it would also make it easier to ship grain from Shandong, as there would be no restrictions from Dizhuzhi. Furthermore, the Baoxie region is rich in timber and arrow bamboo, making it comparable to Bashu.”
The emperor agreed with Zhang Tang’s proposal and appointed Zhang Tang’s son, Ang, as the Governor of Hanzhong. He ordered the mobilization of tens of thousands of soldiers to construct the Baoxie Road, which stretched over 500 miles. The road was indeed convenient and shorter, but the fast-moving water and rocky terrain made it unsuitable for transporting grain by boat.
Afterward, Zhuang Xiongpi proposed, “The people of the Linjin region are willing to dig a canal to divert the Luo River and irrigate the 10,000 acres of salt-alkali land east of Chongquan. If this land is irrigated, the yield could reach ten bushels per acre.” The emperor then mobilized more than 10,000 soldiers to dig the canal, which would draw water from the Luo River to the foot of Shangyan Mountain. Due to the soft soil along the riverbanks, many wells were dug along the flow, some reaching depths of over 40 fathoms. The wells were interconnected, allowing water to flow through them. The water passed through Shangyan Mountain underground and traveled over 10 miles eastward. This system became known as the “Dragon’s Head Canal” because dragon bones were unearthed during the digging. Though the canal was constructed over a span of more than ten years, it only partially succeeded in irrigating the land and did not bring about significant benefits.
Since the Yellow River’s breach at Huzi over 20 years earlier, the land had suffered from flooding and poor harvests, especially in the Liang and Chu regions. After the emperor had completed the Fengshan rites and conducted sacrifices at the famous mountains and rivers of the empire, the following year saw little rain due to the need to dry the soil of Mount Tai’s sacrificial earth. The emperor ordered Ji Ren and Guo Chang to mobilize tens of thousands of soldiers to block the Huzi breach and prevent further flooding. After performing a prayer at the Wansha Temple, the emperor visited the site of the breach, offering sacrifices to the river god by sinking a white horse and a jade disc into the river. He ordered that all officials, from generals down to attendants, carry firewood to fill the breach. At that time, the people of Dongjun were using grass for fuel and had little firewood. Therefore, the emperor ordered the bamboo from Qiyuan to be cut down and used as beams to block the breach.
Since the emperor personally visited the site of the river’s breach, he mourned the failure to seal the river and composed a song that lamented:
“Oh, the breach of Huzixian River, what can be done? The flood waters are vast and relentless, the people’s homes submerged by the river’s might. The land is unsettled, the river works never cease, and my mountains have been flattened. The mountains are leveled, and the great marshes overflow, the waters and creatures stir, as if to rival the heavens and the sun. The river course has become chaotic, the waters no longer flow as they once did, the dragons of the deep roam freely, venturing afar. If the waters do not return to their rightful path, the divine will be disturbed, and who can know the fate of this matter? O River God, I implore you, why is your kindness lacking? The flood continues unabated, and the people are consumed with sorrow. The waters inundate the mulberry groves, flooding the Huai and Si Rivers. The waters have not returned to their original course, and all I wish is that the flow might slow down a little.”
Another verse went:
“The river flows swiftly and turbulently, it is hard to dredge the northern bend. We place grasses and twigs at the breach, and sink beautiful jade into the river. Even if the River God permits the waters to rest, there is not enough firewood to burn. The firewood is insufficient, and the people are punished; there is not enough fuel to burn, how can we combat the water? We cut down the bamboo in Qi Garden, using them to block the stone pillars, sealing the breach at Xuanfang Palace, and may all blessings come!”
Thus, the emperor successfully sealed the breach at Huzixian, and a palace named Xuanfang Palace was built at the site of the breach. Two canals were constructed to direct the river’s flow northward, restoring the waterways to their ancient paths. The regions of Liang and Chu were once again brought to peace, and no further floods occurred.
From then on, officials responsible for the rivers and canals competed to recommend waterworks projects. The Yellow River was diverted to irrigate fields in areas such as Shuofang, Xihe, Hexi, and Jiuquan, while the waters from various rivers were channeled to areas in the Guanzhong region. The Huai River waters were diverted to regions like Runan and Jiujiang, while the waters of the East Sea were directed to Jiuding Marsh. Around Mount Tai, the Wen River was channeled to irrigate the surrounding land. Each of these canals irrigated over ten thousand hectares of farmland. Smaller canals and water routes that pierced mountains to divert water cannot all be named here, but the largest project was the one that sealed the breach at Xuanfang and restored the river.
The Grand Historian said, “I once journeyed south to Mount Lushan, where I observed the ancient traces of Emperor Yu’s channeling of the Nine Rivers. I then visited the Taihuang in Kuaiji, climbed the Suyu Terrace, and gazed across the Five Lakes. To the east, I explored the ruins of Luo Rui and Da Pi, traveling upstream through the Huai, Si, Ji, Luo, and Luo Rivers. To the west, I visited Mount Min in Western Shu and Li Duan. To the north, I traveled from Longmen to Shuofang. I deeply realized how crucial the relationship between water and mankind truly is! I followed the emperor when he personally participated in sealing the breach at Xuanfang, and felt great sorrow when reading his poem about the Huzixian River. It was because of this that I composed the Book on Rivers and Canals.”