The ancestor of the Zhou dynasty, Hou Ji, was born with the name Qi. His mother, Jiang Yuan, was the daughter of the Tai tribe and the chief consort of Emperor Ku. One day, while out in the countryside, Jiang Yuan came across a giant footprint. Filled with awe and curiosity, she stepped into it, and as soon as she did, she felt a strange vibration throughout her body, as though she had conceived a child. Ten months later, she gave birth to a son. However, Jiang Yuan believed the child was inauspicious and abandoned him in a narrow alley. But miraculously, no horses or cattle would step on him; they avoided him entirely. She then moved him to a forest, but people in the forest took notice of the child. Finally, she placed him on the ice of a canal, where birds came and covered him with their wings and used their bodies to cushion him. Jiang Yuan, struck by the inexplicable nature of these events, took the child back and raised him. She named him Qi, as she had originally intended to discard him.
As a child, Qi showed extraordinary promise and displayed the lofty ambitions of a great leader. While playing, he enjoyed cultivating crops such as hemp and beans, and they grew abundantly under his care. When he reached adulthood, he became fond of farming, studying the land meticulously to determine which areas were best suited for particular crops. His farming success became widely recognized, and people began coming to him to learn his methods. Upon hearing of his achievements, Emperor Yao appointed Qi as the Agricultural Minister, responsible for teaching the people how to cultivate crops. His contributions greatly benefited the people of the land. Emperor Shun remarked, “Qi, when the common people were suffering from hunger, you became the Agricultural Minister and sowed various grains.” As a result, Qi was given the title Hou Ji and was bestowed with the surname Ji, with his fief granted in the Tai region. His rise came during the reigns of Yao, Shun, and the early Xia and Shang dynasties, and his family gained a reputation for virtue.
After Hou Ji’s death, his son, Bu Kui, succeeded him. In his later years, during the decline of the Xia Dynasty, the position of Agricultural Minister was abolished, and the people stopped tending to the land. Bu Kui, having lost his official status, wandered into the Rong and Di regions. After his death, his son, Ju, took the throne. Following Ju’s death, his son Gong Liu succeeded him. Despite residing in the Rong and Di territories, Gong Liu continued to manage the ancestral lands of Hou Ji, diligently overseeing agriculture. He conducted surveys of the land, determining the most suitable places for planting crops, and ensured the people had sufficient resources. The people prospered under his leadership, and many from different clans migrated to join him. The rise of the Zhou Dynasty can be traced back to this time, and poets composed songs to honor his contributions. After Gong Liu’s death, his son, Qing Jie, became the ruler and established the capital in the Bin region. Upon Qing Jie’s death, his son, Huang Pu, succeeded him. Huang Pu’s death was followed by the ascension of his son, Cha Fu. After Cha Fu’s death, his son, Hui Qu, took the throne. Hui Qu was succeeded by his son, Gong Fei, who was followed by his son, Gao Yu. Gao Yu’s son, Ya Yu, then inherited the throne, followed by Gong Shu Zu Lei. After Zu Lei’s passing, his son, Gu Gong Dan Fu, ascended the throne.
Gu Gong Dan Fu meticulously rebuilt the great undertakings of Hou Ji and Gong Liu, accumulating virtue and distributing benevolence and righteousness. The people adored him for his wisdom and compassion. When the Rong and Di tribes came to invade, seeking to seize wealth, Gu Gong Dan Fu willingly offered them what they sought. However, when they later returned, intent on taking land and people, the people were enraged and yearned to fight back. Gu Gong Dan Fu, ever the compassionate leader, said, “The people supported their ruler to seek their benefit. Now, the Rong and Di tribes have come to take my land and people. What difference does it make whether the people follow me or them? I cannot bear to sacrifice the lives of our people and families just to serve as their ruler.” He led his people away from Bin, crossing the Qi and Ju rivers and climbing over Liang Mountain, ultimately settling at the foot of Qi Mountain. The people of Bin, from the elderly to the children, followed him, and many neighboring states, hearing of his kindness, chose to join him as well. Gu Gong Dan Fu abolished the customs of the Rong and Di, built fortifications and homes, and organized the people into settled communities. He established various officials to manage state affairs, and the people composed songs to celebrate his virtues.
Gu Gong Dan Fu had two sons: his eldest, Tai Bo, and his second son, Yu Zhong. His consort, Tai Jiang, gave birth to a younger son, Ji Li, who later married Tai Ren, another virtuous woman. They had a son named Chang, who was destined for greatness. Gu Gong Dan Fu remarked, “Our family may rise to prominence in this generation, and it seems that Chang will be the one to fulfill that destiny.” Tai Bo and Yu Zhong, understanding that their father wanted Ji Li to succeed him and pass the throne to Chang, both fled south to the regions of Jing and Man, adopting local customs. They tattooed their bodies and cut their hair, abdicating the throne in favor of Ji Li.
After Gu Gong Dan Fu’s death, Ji Li succeeded him, becoming known as Gong Ji. Gong Ji adhered to his father’s governance, continuing to practice benevolence and righteousness. As a result, many vassals came to submit to him.
When Gong Ji passed away, his son, Chang, succeeded him. He became known as the Western Duke, or Wen Wang. Wen Wang inherited the legacy of Hou Ji and Gong Liu, following their teachings and laws. He wholeheartedly embraced the principles of benevolence and righteousness, showing deep respect for the elderly and love for the young. He treated wise scholars with great humility, even going so far as to forgo meals at times just to welcome and entertain them. As a result, many scholars and talented individuals gathered around him. Hearing of his reverence for the elderly, Bo Yi and Shu Qi, two noble men from the State of Guzhu, decided to seek him out and join him. Other figures, such as Tai Dian, Hong Yao, San Yisheng, and Yi Zi, also pledged their loyalty to him.
However, Chong Hou Hu, a minister at the Shang court, spoke ill of Wen Wang to King Zhou, saying, “Wen Wang has accumulated great virtue, and all the vassal states are turning to him. This could be detrimental to your reign!” Consequently, King Zhou imprisoned Wen Wang in You. Hong Yao and others, worried for Wen Wang’s well-being, devised a plan to offer King Zhou an array of precious gifts: beautiful women from the Youxian tribe, fine horses with red manes and white bodies from the Li Rong region, thirty-six excellent horses from the Bear Kingdom, and other rare treasures. King Zhou, overjoyed by these offerings, remarked, “One of these gifts would have sufficed to secure Wen Wang’s release, so how much more can be done with all of these?” Thus, he granted Wen Wang his freedom, even gifting him bows, arrows, and battle axes, enabling him to levy military action against the neighboring vassals. King Zhou also mentioned, “It was Chong Hou Hu who slandered Wen Wang!”
Once back in his home state, Wen Wang offered to relinquish land west of the Luo River and requested that King Zhou abolish the brutal punishment known as “paoluo,” which involved making a person climb a copper pillar covered in oil and heated by burning charcoal below. If they could not ascend, they would fall into the fire. King Zhou agreed to Wen Wang’s request.
Wen Wang secretly continued his good deeds, and the vassals came to him for arbitration. One day, people from the States of Yu and Rui had a dispute that neither side could resolve. They traveled to Zhou to seek judgment. Upon entering Zhou, they noticed that the farmers there respectfully honored land boundaries and observed the tradition of yielding to the elders. Upon reflection, those from Yu and Rui felt ashamed of their quarrel and remarked, “What we are fighting over is something the people of Zhou would find shameful. Why seek Wen Wang’s judgment when we are only bringing dishonor upon ourselves?” So, they returned, resolved their disputes by yielding their lands, and parted ways. The vassals, hearing of this, remarked, “Wen Wang must be the one destined to receive Heaven’s mandate as ruler.”
The following year, Wen Wang launched a campaign against the Qiang tribe. The next year, he targeted the Mi Xu. In the following year, he defeated the Qi Kingdom. Zuyi, a figure from the Shang Dynasty, hearing of these victories, became fearful and reported the news to King Zhou. King Zhou, still confident in his own divine mandate, dismissed the threat, saying, “Am I not the one who holds the mandate of Heaven? What can he, Wen Wang, accomplish?” The next year, Wen Wang led an expedition against the Xie tribe. The following year, he went after Chong Hou Hu. Wen Wang established a new capital in Feng after relocating from Qi.
When Wen Wang passed away, his son, the crown prince Fa, ascended to the throne and became known as Wu Wang.
Wen Wang ruled for approximately fifty years. During his imprisonment at You, it is said that he expanded the Eight Trigrams of the I Ching to create the 64 Hexagrams. Poets praised Wen Wang, noting that after he arbitrated the dispute between the Yu and Rui states, the vassals universally respected him as king. That year marked the time when he was recognized as the ruler under Heaven’s mandate. Nine years later, Wen Wang passed away and was posthumously honored with the title “Wen Wang.” He reformed the laws of the Shang Dynasty, instituting a new calendar system. He also posthumously elevated Gu Gong to the title of “Tai Wang” and Gong Ji to “Wang Ji,” signifying that the auspicious signs of an emperor’s rise began with Tai Wang.
After Wu Wang, Wen Wang’s son, ascended the throne, Taigong Wang was appointed as the Grand Chancellor, and Duke Zhou Dan became his chief minister, along with other influential figures such as Zhao Gong and Bi Gong, who assisted him. They all followed Wen Wang’s example, continuing his great work.
In the ninth year of his reign, Wu Wang performed a sacrificial ceremony in the Bi region in honor of Wen Wang. He then traveled eastward to review his troops and reached Mengjin. There, he constructed a royal tablet for Wen Wang, placing it on a chariot that was carried in the middle of the army’s camp. Wu Wang declared, “I am the Prince Fa, here at the command of my father, Wen Wang, to carry out this campaign. I dare not make decisions on my own.” He then summoned the military officers—Sima, Situ, and Sikong—who held the royal orders and said, “Everyone must remain serious and respectful. We must act with honesty, for I am a humble man, and it is due to the virtue of our ancestors that I carry on their legacy. Now, I have instituted various systems of rewards and punishments to ensure the completion of our forebears’ work.” The army was then dispatched.
The general, Shi Shangfu, issued orders to the entire army, saying, “Gather your soldiers, row your boats well, and anyone who lags behind shall be executed.” Wu Wang crossed the river by boat, and as the boat reached the middle of the river, a white fish leaped into the boat. Wu Wang bent down to catch it and used it for a sacrifice to Heaven. After crossing the river, a fireball descended from the sky and landed on the roof of Wu Wang’s residence, spinning uncontrollably before transforming into a red crow, emitting a powerful, eerie sound. At that moment, although the vassals had not made a formal agreement, they all gathered at Mengjin—more than eight hundred of them. The vassals said, “It is time to attack King Zhou!” Wu Wang replied, “You do not yet understand Heaven’s will; now is not the time.” He then led his troops back.
Two years later, Wu Wang heard that King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty had become even more tyrannical and reckless, killing his son, Prince Bi Gan, and imprisoning Ji Zi. The Grand Chancellor Ci and the Junior Chancellor Qiang fled to the State of Zhou, carrying their musical instruments with them. Wu Wang, following the legacy of Wen Wang, declared to all the vassals, “The King of Yin’s crimes have grown too severe; it is time to punish him!” He gathered an army of 300 chariots, 3,000 brave soldiers, and 45,000 armored warriors to march eastward against King Zhou. On the day of Wu Wang’s campaign, December 11th in the eleventh year, his army crossed Mengjin, where the vassals gathered. Wu Wang addressed them, saying, “We must remain diligent and resolute!”
Wu Wang then made the “Great Oath,” proclaiming to all the officers and soldiers, “King Zhou of Yin has listened only to the words of women, abandoning the righteous path of Heaven and Earth, alienating his kin, and forsaking the music passed down by his ancestors. Instead, he has adopted vulgar tunes to please women, corrupting the noble music of our ancestors. Therefore, I, Ji Fa, will now carry out Heaven’s judgment. Everyone must strive with all their might! There can be no hesitation or delay!”
On the morning of the first day of the second month, Wu Wang arrived at the plains of Muye, on the outskirts of Shang, to swear in his troops. With a great axe in his left hand and a white flag adorned with a cow’s tail in his right, Wu Wang led his forces. He called out, “Soldiers from the west, I salute you!” and then addressed his allies, saying, “Let all of you—officials, generals, and common soldiers—raise your weapons high, align your shields, and prepare for our oath-taking ceremony!”
Wu Wang further declared, “An old saying goes, ‘When a hen crows, it will bring ruin to the household.’ King Zhou of Yin has listened only to the words of women, neglecting ancestral rites, abandoning national policy, and forsaking his kin. He has raised up criminals and outlaws from all corners, trusted them, and allowed them to oppress the people. Now, I, Ji Fa, will humbly carry out Heaven’s judgment. As we march, we will pause every six or seven steps to align our ranks. After striking four or five times, we will again pause to form our ranks. Keep strong and determined, like tigers, bears, wolves, and dragons! In the outskirts of the capital, we will not stop soldiers who wish to defect from King Zhou’s forces; we will allow them to join us and assist us in overthrowing King Zhou. Be diligent, or you will face punishment!”
After the oath-taking, the vassals assembled with a force of 4,000 chariots and set up their formation in Muye.
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When King Zhou of Yin heard of Wu Wang’s approach, he gathered an army of 700,000 soldiers to defend his kingdom. Wu Wang sent the General Shi Shangfu with 100 brave men to challenge King Zhou’s army, before charging ahead with 350 chariots, 26,250 soldiers, and 3,000 elite warriors. Despite their numerical advantage, King Zhou’s troops lacked the will to fight. They longed for Wu Wang’s forces to engage them, and as a result, many of his soldiers turned their weapons on their own commanders, signaling their defection. Wu Wang seized this opportunity, charging in, and King Zhou’s army collapsed. The troops of Yin fled, and King Zhou retreated to the Lu Tai, donned his precious robes, and tragically set himself on fire.
Wu Wang, holding the Taibai flag, commanded the vassals, who all paid him their respects. He then entered the capital of Shang, Chaoge, where the citizens were waiting in the outskirts. Wu Wang ordered his ministers to announce to the people of Chaoge, “Heaven bless you all!” The people bowed deeply in gratitude, and Wu Wang returned their bows. He then entered the city and found the place where King Zhou had set himself aflame. Wu Wang personally shot three arrows into King Zhou’s body, dismounted from his chariot, and with a fine sword, pierced the corpse. He then used a large yellow axe to decapitate the body, hanging the head on the Taibai flag. He proceeded to the quarters of King Zhou’s two favored concubines, who had both hanged themselves in despair. Wu Wang shot three arrows into their bodies, used his sword to strike them, and decapitated them with a black axe, hanging their heads on a smaller white flag. After this, Wu Wang left the city and returned to his camp.
The next day, Wu Wang ordered the clearing of roads and the restoration of sacrificial altars, as well as the dismantling of King Zhou’s palace. A hundred strong men carried flags with flowing ribbons ahead of the procession. Wu Wang’s younger brother, Shuzhen, guarded the procession, and Duke Zhou Dan carried the great axe, while Bi Gong carried a small axe. They stood beside Wu Wang, protected by the sword-bearing generals San Yisheng, Tai Dian, and Hong Yao. As they entered the city, Wu Wang stood on the left side of the great sacrificial altar, with the ministers following behind him. Mao Shu Zheng carried dew gathered under the moonlight, Wei Kang Shu prepared the offerings, and Zhao Gong presented the colorful silks. Shi Shangfu led the sacrificial animals.
Yi Yi Lang read the sacrificial prayer aloud, saying, “King Zhou, the last of the Shang Dynasty, has completely corrupted the virtue of his ancestors, disrespecting the gods, neglecting ancestral rites, and oppressing the people. His sins were known to Heaven.” Wu Wang then bowed twice, prostrating himself to the ground, and said, “I have received Heaven’s mandate to abolish the Shang Dynasty and replace it with a righteous rule.” He bowed twice more, then withdrew.
After the fall of the Shang Dynasty, Wu Wang granted land to the remaining people of Yin and assigned the son of King Zhou, Lu Fu, to rule over them. As the land of Yin had just been subdued and stability had yet to be established, Wu Wang appointed his younger brothers, Guan Shu Xian and Cai Shu Du, to assist Lu Fu in governing the territory. He then ordered Zhao Gong to release Ji Zi from prison, and also instructed Bi Gong to free the common people who had been imprisoned, while praising Shang Rong for his noble character in managing the city’s neighborhoods. Wu Wang further commanded Nan Gong Kuo to distribute funds from the Lu Tai warehouse and provisions from the Ju Qiao granary, offering relief to the poor and weak. He also ordered Nan Gong Kuo and Shi Yi to display the Nine Tripod Vessels, treasures of the Shang dynasty, and to present the precious jade relics of the Shang rulers.
Wu Wang then ordered Hong Yao to build a tomb for Bi Gan at his resting place, and directed the officials in charge of rituals to conduct a ceremony for the fallen warriors. Only after these tasks were completed did Wu Wang lead his army back westward. On his journey, he inspected the various vassal states, documented the affairs of governance, and composed the “Wu Cheng” to announce his successful campaign against the Shang Dynasty. He also distributed land to the vassals, awarded ritual vessels to the royal ancestral temples, and compiled the “Fenli Yin Zhi Qi Wu,” which documented Wu Wang’s commands and the gifts granted to the vassals.
In his longing for the ancient sage-kings, Wu Wang honored and conferred titles on the descendants of the legendary rulers. He granted a fief to the descendants of the God Emperor Shennong in Jiao, the descendants of the Yellow Emperor in Zhu, the descendants of Emperor Yao in Ji, the descendants of Emperor Shun in Chen, and the descendants of Great Yu in Qi. He then distributed fiefs to his loyal ministers and generals, with Shi Shangfu receiving the first fief in Yingqiu, named Qi. His younger brother, Zhou Gong Dan, was granted the fief of Qu Fu, known as Lu. Zhao Gong Shi was granted the fief of Yan, and his brothers, Shu Xian and Shu Du, were given the fiefs of Guan and Cai, respectively. The rest of his ministers were similarly honored.
Wu Wang summoned the governors of the Nine Provinces and ascended a hill near Bin City, where he gazed towards the capital of the Shang Dynasty. Upon returning to the Zhou capital, Haojing, he was unable to sleep that night. Zhou Gong Dan visited him and inquired, “Why can you not sleep, Your Majesty?” Wu Wang replied, “Listen well: Heaven has not accepted the sacrificial offerings of the Shang Dynasty. From the time I, Ji Fa, was born, it has been sixty years. Monsters and pests have appeared in the outskirts, and Heaven did not protect the Shang Dynasty, which is why we were able to succeed. The Shang Dynasty once had 360 distinguished officials. Although their deeds may not have been exceptional, they were not entirely without merit, and they sustained the dynasty until now. I have not yet ensured that Heaven’s blessings will protect the Zhou Dynasty for eternity. How can I rest?”
Wu Wang continued, “I must secure the eternal fortune of the Zhou Dynasty, to draw near to the Heavenly abode. I must seek out all wrongdoers and punish them, just as I did with King Zhou of Shang. I will work diligently day and night, ensuring the stability of the West, and carry out my duties until the merits shine across all directions. From the bay of Luo Shui to the bay of Yi Shui, the land is flat and without obstacles, once the settled land of the Xia Dynasty. I look south to the Three Tu, north to Mount Yue, observing the Yellow River, and carefully surveying the regions of Luo Shui and Yi Shui. This land, not far from the Heavenly abode, is an ideal place for our capital.” After conducting a survey of the city’s construction, Wu Wang returned to his duties. He ordered horses to graze to the south of Mount Hua and cattle to graze in the peach grove. The soldiers were instructed to lay down their weapons and reorganize before disbanding, signaling that military actions would cease.
Two years after Wu Wang’s victory over the Shang Dynasty, he sought out Ji Zi to inquire about the downfall of Shang. Ji Zi, unwilling to speak ill of the Shang, instead shared his thoughts on the reasons behind the rise and fall of nations. Wu Wang, feeling embarrassed, then deliberately asked about the natural laws governing Heaven and Earth.
At this time, Wu Wang fell ill. The world had not yet been unified, and the royal ministers grew concerned. They earnestly performed divinations. Zhou Gong Dan fasted, bathed, and prayed to Heaven, offering to substitute his own body for Wu Wang’s suffering. Slowly, Wu Wang’s health improved.
After Wu Wang passed away, his son Cheng Wang ascended the throne. However, since Cheng Wang was still young and Zhou was still in the process of consolidating power, Zhou Gong Dan, fearing the vassals might rebel, took on the regency, managing state affairs on behalf of the young king. Guan Shu, Cai Shu, and other brothers suspected Zhou Gong of plotting to usurp the throne and allied with Wu Geng in a rebellion against the Zhou. Zhou Gong, acting on the command of Cheng Wang, quelled the rebellion, executing Wu Geng and Guan Shu, and exiling Cai Shu. The descendants of the Shang Dynasty were gathered, and the land was granted to Wu Wang’s younger brother, who was made Wei Kang Shu.
Zhou Gong then received a rare grain from Tang Shu, a crop that yielded two varieties of millet on a single stalk, which was presented to Cheng Wang. Cheng Wang, in turn, gifted it to Zhou Gong in the eastern territories, praising the Heavenly decree that bestowed the grain. At first, Guan Shu and Cai Shu rebelled against Zhou, and it took three years for Zhou Gong to finally restore order. During this time, Zhou Gong wrote the “Da Gao,” a proclamation that outlined the principles of the Eastern Expedition against the rebels. He also wrote the “Wei Zi Zhi Ming,” confirming the succession of the Shang bloodline through Wei Zi, and the “Gui He” and “Jia He,” which praised the Heavenly gifts of superior grain. He issued the “Kang Gao,” “Jiu Gao,” and “Zi Cai,” directing Kang Shu to observe the virtues of temperance and good governance. These events were recorded in the “Lu Zhou Gong Shi Jia.”
Zhou Gong acted as regent for seven years, and when Cheng Wang came of age, he handed over the reigns of power to him and returned to his position among the ministers.
King Cheng resided in Fengyi and dispatched Duke Shao to Luoyi to conduct a survey, following the will of King Wu. Duke Zhou, once again, performed divination and carefully examined the topography. Ultimately, the construction was successful, and the Nine Tripods were placed there. He remarked, “This is the center of the world, and the routes for tribute from all directions are equal.” During the process of surveying and constructing Luoyi, the “Proclamation” and “Luoyi Proclamation” were written. King Cheng relocated the remnants of the Yin Dynasty’s people to this new city, where Duke Zhou delivered King Cheng’s orders, writing admonitions to the Yin people in the “Multiple Scholars” and “No Idleness” documents.
Duke Shao served as the Grand Tutor, while Duke Zhou held the position of Grand Teacher. They then led an eastern campaign against the Huai Yi and destroyed the Yan Kingdom, relocating the Yan King to Bogu. After returning from the Yan Kingdom, King Cheng wrote the “Many Regions” in Zhongzhou, admonishing all the vassals of the realm. He eradicated the remnants of the Yin Dynasty, attacked the Huai Yi, and returned to Fengyi, where he composed the “Zhou Officials,” a document outlining the methods of governance, redefined rituals, created music systems, and revised laws and systems. The people lived in harmony and peace, and songs of praise flourished.
After subduing the Eastern Yi, Xishen came to congratulate King Cheng. King Cheng commanded Rong Bo to compose the “Bribery of Xishen’s Order.”
When King Cheng was near death, he feared his son, Crown Prince Zhao, might not be able to manage state affairs effectively. Therefore, he ordered Duke Shao and Duke Bi to lead the vassals and assist the crown prince in his ascension to the throne. After King Cheng passed away, Duke Shao and Duke Bi, accompanied by the vassals, took Crown Prince Zhao to pay respects at the royal ancestral shrine, reminding him repeatedly of the difficult foundation that King Wen and King Wu laid for the Zhou Dynasty. They urged him to practice frugality, refrain from greed, and focus on the governance of the state. The “Admonition” was written, requesting ministers to assist in guiding the crown prince Zhao. Thus, Crown Prince Zhao ascended the throne as King Kang.
Upon King Kang’s ascension, he announced to the vassals the achievements of King Wen and King Wu, emphasizing their importance and documenting it in the “King Kang’s Proclamation.” Therefore, during the reigns of King Cheng and King Kang, peace prevailed across the land, and all punishments were laid aside. For forty years, no punishments were issued. King Kang instructed Duke Bi to compose a decree, urging the people to settle in separate villages and establish boundaries around the outskirts of the Zhou capital, to serve as its defenses. He wrote the “Bi’s Command,” documenting Duke Bi’s assignment.
After King Kang’s death, his son, King Zhao Xia, succeeded the throne. During King Zhao’s reign, the royal way began to decline. While inspecting the southern regions, King Zhao did not return, for the people there despised him. They provided him with a boat sealed with glue, and he drowned in the river. When he died, no official mourning was declared to the vassals, as it was deemed taboo. Later, King Zhao’s son, Man, was enthroned as King Mu.
King Mu ascended the throne at the age of fifty, and the nation’s political state had weakened. King Mu, lamenting that the virtuous governance of King Wen and King Wu had been damaged, instructed Bo Ji to repeatedly admonish the Grand Tutor to manage the state’s affairs carefully, which led to the writing of the “Ji’s Command.” This brought stability back to the realm.
King Mu prepared to attack the Quan Rong, but Zhai Gong Moufu advised against it, saying, “Our former kings, guided by their virtue, won people’s hearts, not by boasting of military power. Armies accumulate strength in times of peace and act decisively when needed. If military power is flaunted without necessity, it loses its impact, and no one will fear it. The hymns praising Duke Zhou say: ‘Put away the spear and the bow, seek virtue and treasure talents, and spread the teachings of China, so that the royal legacy may endure forever.’
Our ancestors served as agricultural advisors to the rulers, working for the benefit of Emperor Shun and Emperor Yu. When the Xia Dynasty declined, the Xia kings abandoned agriculture, and our ancestors, although losing their official posts, did not neglect farming, continually promoting virtuous teachings. Over time, these virtues were passed down, not corrupted by later generations. During the reigns of King Wen and King Wu, these virtues flourished, and with their compassion and reverence for the gods, they protected the people, leading to the peace and prosperity that followed.
The King of the Shang Dynasty, Emperor Xin, committed great evils against the people, and they could no longer bear it, leading to their support for King Wu, who brought about the War of Muye. Therefore, our ancestors did not emphasize military might, but instead focused on caring for the people and eliminating harm. The royal system established that the areas within five hundred li of the capital were designated as the ‘Dianfu,’ regions five hundred li beyond that were ‘Houfu,’ and areas extending from the Houfu to the Wei Fu, covering a total of two thousand five hundred li, were called ‘Binfu.’ The remote regions were designated as ‘Yao Fu’ and ‘Huang Fu.’
The ‘Dianfu’ areas were required to offer daily sacrifices to the ancestors; the ‘Houfu’ areas made monthly sacrifices to the great-grandparents and ancestors; the ‘Binfu’ regions offered seasonal sacrifices; the ‘Yao Fu’ areas provided annual tributes, and the ‘Huang Fu’ regions were expected to come and pay their respects to the king. The sacrificial rites involved daily offerings to the ancestors, monthly to the great-grandparents, seasonal to the distant ancestors, yearly to the gods, and one lifetime visit to the king.
The teachings left by our ancestors were clear: those who failed to make daily offerings should reflect on their thoughts, those who failed to make monthly offerings should reflect on their words, those who failed to make seasonal sacrifices should reflect on their laws, and those who failed to make annual tributes should reflect on the respect for hierarchy. If these were neglected, the ruler was to enforce punishment. Thus, the punishments, military campaigns, and the strict laws followed when people failed to comply.
It was said that in the past, the Quan Rong adhered to the ‘Huang Fu’ system, visiting the king according to their duties. Yet now, you wish to use the punishment for ‘Binfu’ as an excuse to attack them, demonstrating the might of your army. Is this not against the teachings of our ancestors? If they have established a virtuous tradition and follow the ancient customs of honoring the king, then surely they have the strength to oppose us.”
In the end, King Mu went on to fight the Western Rong but only returned with four white wolves and four white deer. From that point on, the remote regions no longer came to pay tribute to the king.
Some of the lords were not on good terms with each other, and the Duke of Fu reported this to King Mu. In response, King Mu established a legal code. He addressed his officials, saying, “Listen up! To all lords and ministers who govern the lands, I am presenting to you a perfected legal system. When you seek to pacify the people, who should you choose? Is it not those with wisdom and virtue? What should you take seriously? Should it not be the law? How should you handle matters? Should it not be with appropriate use of punishment? When both the accuser and the accused have arrived, the jailers shall examine them, noting their words, facial expressions, breaths, and the reactions to their statements. If the results of these five examinations are conclusive, then the appropriate punishments—such as tattooing, nose cutting, amputations, castration, and the death penalty—shall be applied. If the punishments are not suitable, monetary fines shall be levied as an alternative.
If there is doubt about the use of any of the five punishments, then fines shall be imposed according to the severity of the crime. If the case still has uncertainties, it shall be judged according to the five categories of faults. However, there are pitfalls with such an approach—it may lead to the abuse of power, with officials seeking revenge or offering favor through bribery, or by interfering with the process through royal concubines. In such cases, even high-ranking officials must be treated the same as the common criminals, with no favoritism. If doubts remain about a judgment, the punishment shall be reduced accordingly, with a further reduction for any residual uncertainties. Everything must be carefully scrutinized. Justice must be based on clear evidence and the facts at hand. In cases where the evidence is not conclusive, there should be no suspicion and no punishment should be meted out. One must respect the authority of the heavens and exercise restraint in applying the law.
If there is uncertainty in sentencing a person to the tattoo punishment, a fine of 600 pounds of copper may be imposed instead, but it must be rigorously examined. The same applies to other punishments: cutting the nose, amputation of the knee, castration, and the death penalty, with the fines increasing according to the severity of the crime. If, after thorough investigation, guilt is confirmed, the punishment must be carried out. The legal code, which included a thousand regulations for tattooing, a thousand for nose cutting, five hundred for amputations, three hundred for castration, and two hundred for the death penalty, is known as the “Fu Code,” after the Duke of Fu who proposed it.
King Mu ruled for fifty-five years before passing away, and his son, King Gong, succeeded him. King Gong traveled to the Jing River, where Minister Mi Kang was accompanied by three beautiful women. Mi Kang’s mother said, “You must present them to the King. Just as three beasts make a ‘herd,’ three people make a ‘group,’ and three beauties make a ‘gathering.’ Even a king should not take too many beasts for hunting, nor should a ruler show off too much. A king should not marry three sisters. These women are beautiful, but how can you bear the responsibility of such treasures? If the king cannot bear such beauty, how can a mere minister like you?” Mi Kang did not offer the women, and within a year, King Gong destroyed the State of Mi.
After King Gong’s death, his son, King Yi, succeeded him. During his reign, the Zhou Dynasty declined, and poets began composing satirical verses. When King Yi passed away, King Gong’s brother, Duke Bifang, assumed the throne, becoming King Xiao. After King Xiao’s death, the lords crowned King Yi’s son, Prince Xie, as King Yi. After King Yi died, his son, King Li, took the throne.
King Li ruled for thirty years, indulging in greed and seeking profit, surrounding himself with the noble Duke Rong. Minister Rui Liang cautioned King Li, saying, “The royal family is in danger! Duke Rong seeks only to monopolize wealth, but this brings great peril. Wealth is naturally shared among all things under heaven—how can one person hoard it? Hoarding wealth will anger others and invite calamity. Duke Rong is using wealth to entice you; can you rule for long under such temptation? A ruler should distribute wealth to both ministers and people, ensuring all receive their due. Even so, one must be vigilant, as there may still be resentment. The ancient texts say, ‘My ancestors were virtuous, their deeds as great as heaven and earth. They cultivated the land and supported the people, with no one not following their example.’ This shows that sharing wealth and guarding against disasters is essential for maintaining the throne. But now, you are learning to hoard wealth as Duke Rong does. How can this be? Even ordinary people who hoard wealth are called robbers; if you do the same, your subjects will abandon you.”
King Li ignored the advice and kept Duke Rong in a powerful position, overseeing the state affairs. King Li became tyrannical, allowing arrogance to grow, and the people began openly criticizing his rule. Minister Zhao Gong warned him, saying, “The people can no longer endure your orders!” In a fit of rage, King Li summoned a wizard from the State of Wei to monitor the critics. Once the wizard identified those speaking out, they were reported and immediately executed. While this silenced many critics, the lords stopped coming to pay their respects. Thirty-four years later, King Li grew even more tyrannical, and no one dared speak. The people, instead, communicated only through subtle glances.
King Li was pleased and told Zhao Gong, “I have silenced the people; no one dares speak anymore.” Zhao Gong replied, “You have merely sealed their mouths, but this is more dangerous than blocking a river. When a river is blocked, it may eventually overflow, causing great harm. Similarly, suppressing the voices of the people will invite greater disasters. The ruler must allow the people to speak, just as a river must flow freely. If people express their concerns, it is like the earth producing resources. The people’s voices reveal what is good and what is bad; the good should be followed, and the bad should be avoided. If their mouths are shut, the ruler will not know what is right or wrong.”
King Li ignored Zhao Gong’s advice. Three years later, the people revolted and attacked King Li. He fled to Zhi.
When King Li’s crown prince, Jing, was hidden in the home of the Duke of Shao, the people of the kingdom soon learned of it and surrounded the Duke’s residence. The Duke of Shao said, “I have repeatedly advised the king, but he did not listen, leading to such a calamity. If the crown prince were to be killed now, the king would likely think I bear a grudge against him and hold him in contempt. But those who serve their sovereign should never harbor resentment, even in times of peril. And if resentment exists, it should never be expressed in anger. How much more so should one conduct oneself with restraint when serving the Son of Heaven?” Thus, the Duke of Shao substituted his own son in place of the crown prince, and the crown prince was spared.
The Duke of Shao and the Duke of Zhou together assumed the role of regents, governing the affairs of the court. Their era was known as the “Regency of the Two Dukes” (841 BC). In the fourteenth year of this period (828 BC), King Li died in the region of Zhi. Crown Prince Jing, who had grown up under the care of the Duke of Shao, was jointly supported by the two regents and established as king. This was the beginning of King Xuan’s reign. Upon his ascension, King Xuan, assisted by the two regents, focused on good governance, following the example of the virtuous rulers—King Wen, King Wu, King Cheng, and King Kang. The vassal states once again pledged allegiance to the Zhou royal family.
In the twelfth year of King Xuan’s reign (816 BC), Duke Wu of Lu came to pay homage to the emperor.
King Xuan personally worked the Jie fields, a special plot of land set aside to serve as an example for the emperor to lead by in promoting agriculture. Duke Wen of Guo advised against it, but King Xuan did not listen. In the thirty-ninth year (789 BC), the emperor’s army was disastrously defeated in battle by the Jiang Rong tribe on the Jie fields.
King Xuan lost control over the southern regions of the Yangtze and Huai rivers and then conducted a census of the population in Taiyuan to prepare for military conscription. Zhong Shanfu advised against the census, but King Xuan insisted, and the census was carried out.
In the forty-sixth year (782 BC), King Xuan passed away, and his son, King You, succeeded him. In the second year of King You’s reign (780 BC), a series of earthquakes struck the western Zhou capital and the surrounding areas, including the Jing, Wei, and Luo rivers. The historian Bo Yangfu remarked, “The Zhou dynasty is on the verge of collapse. The balance of yin and yang, the very forces that govern the cosmos, is in disarray. When the forces are disturbed, it is often due to human actions. The yang force, which should rise, has been suppressed, and the yin force is pressing down upon it, causing the earth to shake. The reason for these earthquakes is the disruption of cosmic order. The imbalance in the flow of water will result in the death of the state, just as it did for the Xia and Shang dynasties. When the watercourses become obstructed, they dry up, and so too will the kingdom. A nation’s survival depends on the health of its mountains and rivers—when the mountains collapse and the rivers dry up, the state is in its final days.”
That year, indeed, the three rivers dried up, and Mount Qi collapsed.
In the third year of King You’s reign (779 BC), King You became infatuated with the woman Bao Si, who bore him a son named Bo Fu. King You intended to depose the crown prince, whose mother was the daughter of the Duke of Shen and the king’s queen. Eventually, King You’s affections for Bao Si led him to want to remove Queen Shen and replace her with Bao Si, making Bo Fu the new crown prince. The historian Bo Yangfu read the ancient texts and lamented, “The Zhou dynasty is headed toward ruin.”
In the time of the Xia dynasty’s decline, two sacred dragons appeared at the palace of the Xia emperor, claiming to be the ancestors of the Bao kingdom. The Xia emperor, unsure of whether to kill them, exile them, or keep them, consulted an oracle. The oracle was unfavorable, but when the oracle advised that the dragons’ saliva be preserved, it was deemed auspicious. The Xia emperor then offered sacrifices and prayers, and the dragons disappeared, leaving their saliva behind. The saliva was stored in a wooden box and passed down through the Shang dynasty to the Zhou dynasty, where it was kept sealed. No one dared to open the box for three generations, until the reign of King Li. When the box was opened, the dragon saliva spread across the hall and could not be cleaned. In response, King Li ordered a group of women to shout at the saliva, and from it emerged a large black lizard that crawled into the king’s harem. A young palace maid, about six or seven years old, happened to encounter the lizard, and later, as an adult, she mysteriously became pregnant, despite having no husband. She feared the child and abandoned it. A couple, who were selling mulberry bows and arrow bags made from broom wood, heard the infant’s cries late one night and, filled with compassion, decided to raise the child.
The couple continued their escape to the Bao kingdom. Later, the Bao kingdom offended the Zhou dynasty and sought to atone by offering the abandoned girl to King Li. The girl, named Bao Si, was presented to King You, who immediately became enamored with her. She bore him a son, Bo Fu, and King You eventually deposed Crown Prince Ji and Queen Shen, elevating Bao Si to the status of queen and making Bo Fu the crown prince.
The historian Bo Yangfu, seeing the unfolding events, mournfully said, “The disaster has already been set in motion, and there is no turning back.”
Bào Sì, the consort of King You of Zhou, was known for her inability to laugh. In an attempt to make her smile, King You resorted to various means, but none succeeded. Eventually, he devised a plan using the beacons and war drums, signaling an enemy invasion by lighting the beacons. When the feudal lords saw the flames, they hurried to the capital, only to find no sign of any enemy. Upon witnessing this, Bào Sì could not contain her laughter. King You, overjoyed by her reaction, repeated this tactic several times. However, the feudal lords soon grew skeptical and ceased coming.
King You of Zhou appointed Guó Shīfù to a high governmental position, sparking discontent among the people. Shīfù was a man of cunning and flattery, skilled in sycophantic ways and driven by greed, yet King You highly favored him. King You also deposed his wife, Shēn Hòu, and his heir, the crown prince. Furious, Shēn Hòu allied with the Zēng State and the Quǎn Róng tribe to launch an attack on King You. When the beacons were lit again to summon aid from the feudal lords, no help came. In the end, Shēn Hòu killed King You at the foot of Lì Mountain, captured Bào Sì, and plundered the treasures of Zhou before leaving. The feudal lords, disillusioned, rallied behind Shēn Hòu and installed King You’s former son, Yí Jiù, as the new king, known as King Píng, to continue the Zhou Dynasty’s sacrificial rites.
Upon ascending the throne, King Píng moved the capital to Lò Yì (Eastern Luò), to avoid further incursions by the Quǎn Róng. During his reign, the Zhou dynasty’s influence waned, with the feudal states growing stronger. The States of Qí, Chǔ, Qín, and Jìn began to rise in power, and political affairs were increasingly dictated by the leaders of these states.
In 722 BCE, Duke Yǐn of Lú ascended the throne. In 720 BCE, King Píng passed away, and his son, Prince Xiè, died young, leaving his grandson, Lín, to succeed him as King Huán. In the third year of King Huán’s reign (717 BCE), Duke Zhuāng of Zhèng paid a visit to the king but was not properly received according to protocol. In 715 BCE, out of resentment toward King Huán, the State of Zhèng swapped lands with the State of Lú. These lands were dedicated to the imperial sacrificial rites at Mount Tài.
In 712 BCE, the people of Lú killed Duke Yǐn and installed King Huán. In 707 BCE, during King Huán’s reign, the Zhou forces attacked Zhèng, and a man named Zhù Dān from Zhèng wounded King Huán’s shoulder with an arrow. The king retreated in defeat.
King Huán passed away in 697 BCE, and his son, Zhuāng Wáng, ascended the throne. In 693 BCE, King Zhuāng was nearly overthrown by a conspiracy led by the Duke of Zhōu, who sought to replace him with Prince Kè. However, the plot was foiled when Xin Bó reported it to King Zhuāng. The king had the Duke of Zhōu executed, while Prince Kè fled to the State of Yān.
In 677 BCE, King Zhuāng died, and his son, Xī Wáng, succeeded him. In 679 BCE, during Xī Wáng’s third year of reign, Duke Huán of Qí began to assert dominance over the feudal states. In 677 BCE, King Xī died, and his son, Huì Wáng, ascended the throne.
King Huì’s reign was marked by several conflicts, notably with the ministers, who opposed his actions. They attempted to seize power by supporting his brother to become king. In 675 BCE, after a series of political upheavals, Huì Wáng fled to Wēn Yì and later to Lì Yì in Zhèng.
The ministers eventually deposed Huì Wáng, and with the help of the State of Zhèng, he was reinstated to the throne. In 667 BCE, after ten years, King Huì appointed Duke Huán of Qí as the leader of the feudal lords.
In 652 BCE, King Huì passed away, and his son, Xiāng Wáng, succeeded him. Xiāng Wáng’s mother had passed away early, leaving his stepmother, Huì Hòu, as the prominent figure in the court. Huì Hòu favored her son, Shū Dài, and Xiāng Wáng grew wary of him. In 649 BCE, Shū Dài, along with the States of Róng and Zhái, conspired to overthrow Xiāng Wáng. Fearing for his life, Xiāng Wáng attempted to have Shū Dài executed, but Shū Dài escaped to Qí.
In 643 BCE, Duke Huán of Qí intervened diplomatically by sending officials to mediate between the States of Róng and Zhōu. Xiāng Wáng received the envoy, but refused to show the expected courtesy. However, the envoy, despite being of lower rank, was still honored, which was a reflection of the political nuances of the time.
Duke Huán passed away in 643 BCE, and by 640 BCE, Shū Dài returned to the Zhou court.
In the thirteenth year (639 BC), the State of Zheng attacked the State of Hua. King Xiang of Zhou sent You Sun and Bo Fu to mediate on behalf of Hua, but Zheng captured both men. Duke Wen of Zheng, angered that after King Hui was escorted back to the court, he received fine jade wine vessels from the Duke of Guo, but nothing from Duke Li of Zheng, and also resenting that King Xiang helped the states of Wei and Hua, had Bo Fu imprisoned. King Xiang, enraged, sent the army of the State of Zhai to attack Zheng. Fu Chen, one of the courtiers, advised King Xiang, saying: “When King Ping moved east, it was with the help of the forces of Jin and Zheng. When Zitao rebelled, it was with Zheng’s aid that it was quelled. Can we really abandon this ally over a minor grudge?” King Xiang, however, disregarded the counsel. In the fifteenth year (637 BC), King Xiang dispatched the Zhai army to attack Zheng. Grateful for Zhai’s assistance, King Xiang planned to make the daughter of the King of Zhai his queen. Fu Chen once again cautioned, saying, “Kings Ping, Huan, Zhuang, and Hui all received help from Zheng. You, my lord, are abandoning the kinship of Zheng to favor Zhai. This is highly unadvisable.” But King Xiang persisted in his course. In the sixteenth year (636 BC), King Xiang deposed Queen Zhai, prompting the Zhai people to retaliate. They killed the Zhou official Tan Bo. Fu Chen, seeing the situation worsen and realizing he might be perceived as holding a grudge, declared, “I have long counseled the king, but he has not heeded my advice. Now that we are at this juncture, if I do not take action, the king may think I am resentful of him.” He then led his followers into battle against the Di people, where he was killed.
At the outset, Queen Hui had wanted to install Prince Shu Dai as crown prince. To this end, she had secretly sent agents to guide the Zhai people, enabling them to breach the Zhou capital. King Xiang fled to Zheng, where he was sheltered in the city of Fan. Prince Shu Dai ascended to the throne, marrying Queen Zhai, who had been deposed by King Xiang, and they settled in Wen City. In the seventeenth year (635 BC), King Xiang sought aid from the State of Jin, and Duke Wen of Jin escorted him back to the Zhou court, where Prince Shu Dai was killed. In gratitude, King Xiang bestowed jade tablets, fragrant wine, and bows and arrows upon Duke Wen, making him the leader of the vassal states and granting him territories in the region of He Nei. In the twentieth year (632 BC), Duke Wen of Jin summoned King Xiang, and they met at He Yang and Jian Tu, where all the vassal lords came to pay homage. Due to royal etiquette, the historian recorded this as “The Son of Heaven visits He Yang.”
In the twenty-fourth year (628 BC), Duke Wen of Jin passed away.
In the thirty-first year (621 BC), Duke Mu of Qin passed away.
In the thirty-second year (620 BC), King Xiang of Zhou passed away. His son, King Qing, ascended the throne. In the sixth year of King Qing’s reign (613 BC), King Qing died, and his son, King Kuang, succeeded him. In the sixth year of King Kuang’s reign (607 BC), King Kuang passed away, and his brother, Yu, ascended the throne. This was King Ding of Zhou.
In the first year of King Ding’s reign (606 BC), King Zhuang of Chu waged a campaign against the Rong tribes of the Lu Hun region and camped in Luo City. The Chu king sent envoys to inquire about the weight and size of the Nine Tripods. King Ding instructed his grandson, Man, to respond cleverly, thus convincing the Chu forces to depart. In the tenth year (597 BC), King Zhuang of Chu laid siege to Zheng, and the Lord of Zheng surrendered, but the state was soon restored. King Zhuang of Chu passed away in the sixteenth year (591 BC).
In the twenty-first year (586 BC), King Ding passed away, and his son, King Jian, ascended the throne. In the thirteenth year of King Jian’s reign (573 BC), the people of Jin killed their ruler, Duke Li, and brought Prince Zhou from the Zhou court to crown him as Duke Dao.
In the fourteenth year (572 BC), King Jian passed away, and his son, King Ling, succeeded him. In the twenty-fourth year (548 BC), Lord Cui Zhu of Qi killed King Zhuang of Qi.
In the twenty-seventh year (545 BC), King Ling passed away, and his son, King Jing, was crowned. In the eighteenth year of King Jing’s reign (527 BC), the crown prince, who was known for his wisdom and insight, passed away prematurely. In the twentieth year (525 BC), King Jing, who favored his son Chao, intended to make him the crown prince. However, King Jing passed away at this time. This led to a struggle for the throne between the factions supporting Zichao and the supporters of his elder son Meng, who was eventually killed in battle. Meng was the Duke of Dao. The people of Jin attacked Zichao’s faction and installed Ji as king, and this was King Jing of Zhou.
In the first year of King Jing’s reign (519 BC), the people of Jin escorted King Jing back to the court. Since Zichao had already established himself as king, King Jing was unable to enter the capital and resided in Zeyi. In the fourth year (516 BC), Jin led the vassal states to escort King Jing back to Zhou. Zichao became a subject, and the vassal states rebuilt the capital of Zhou. In the sixteenth year (504 BC), Zichao’s supporters rose in rebellion, and King Jing fled to Jin. In the seventeenth year (503 BC), Duke Ding of Jin finally escorted King Jing back to Zhou.
In the thirty-ninth year (481 BC), Lord Tian Chang of Qi killed their ruler, Duke Jian.
In the forty-first year (479 BC), Chu destroyed the State of Chen. Confucius passed away in this year.
In the 42nd year (478 BCE), King Jing of Zhou passed away, and his son, King Yuan, ascended the throne. Eight years later, in 469 BCE, King Yuan died, and his son, King Ding, succeeded him.
In the 16th year of King Ding’s reign (453 BCE), the states of Han, Zhao, and Wei united to overthrow Zhi Bo, dividing his land among themselves.
In the 28th year (441 BCE), King Ding passed away, and his eldest son, Qi Ji, succeeded him as King Ai. However, only three months into his reign, King Ai was assassinated by his brother, Shu, who then claimed the throne as King Si. King Si ruled for five months before his younger brother, Wei, overthrew him and declared himself King Kao. All three kings were sons of King Ding.
King Kao ruled for 15 years, dying in 426 BCE. His son, King Wei, succeeded him.
King Kao had appointed his brother, Prince Huan, to a high office in Henan, a position that continued after Huan’s death. His son, Prince Wei, took over after his death, while his youngest son was appointed to guard the Zhou King in the east, taking the title of Eastern Zhou Hegemon.
In the 23rd year of King Wei’s reign (403 BCE), the Nine Tripods trembled. This year, the Zhou King conferred the title of duke on the states of Han, Wei, and Zhao.
In the 24th year (402 BCE), King Wei passed away, and his son, King An, ascended the throne. In that same year, bandits killed King Shengt of Chu.
King An ruled for 26 years (376 BCE) before his death, and his son, King Lie, succeeded him. In the second year of King Lie’s reign (374 BCE), the historian Dan from the Zhou court met with Duke Xian of Qin and predicted that after 500 years of separation, Zhou and Qin would reunite, and after 17 years, someone would emerge to unify the world.
Seven years later (369 BCE), King Lie passed away, and his brother, Prince Bian, succeeded him as King Xian. In the fifth year of King Xian’s reign (364 BCE), he congratulated Duke Xian of Qin, who had begun asserting dominance. In the 9th year (360 BCE), King Xian sent sacrificial offerings to honor the revered kings, Wen and Wu.
In the 25th year (344 BCE), the Qin state met with the Zhou and other vassal states for a covenant. In the 26th year (343 BCE), the Zhou King conferred the title of “Duke of Longfang” to Duke Xiao of Qin. In the 33rd year (336 BCE), the Zhou King again congratulated King Hui of Qin. In the 35th year (334 BCE), the Zhou King sent more sacrificial offerings. In the 44th year (325 BCE), King Hui of Qin proclaimed himself as king. From this point, all the vassal states declared themselves kings.
In the 48th year (321 BCE), King Xian of Zhou passed away, and his son, King Shenjiang, succeeded him. King Shenjiang ruled for six years before his death, and his son, King Nan, ascended the throne. During King Nan’s reign, the Eastern and Western Zhou states governed separately. King Nan moved the capital to the Western Zhou territory.
During the reign of King Wu of Western Zhou, the Crown Prince died, and five other sons of lesser rank could not succeed to the throne. Sima Jian, an advisor, suggested to King Chu that land should be offered to Prince Jiu to help him gain the title of Crown Prince. However, another official, Zuo Cheng, disagreed, advising that such a move would strain relations with Zhou. Eventually, Zhou chose Prince Jiu as Crown Prince.
In the 8th year (307 BCE), Qin attacked Yiyang, and Chu sent troops to aid the city. However, the state of Chu suspected that Zhou was supporting Qin and considered attacking Zhou. Su Dai, a diplomat, explained to the King of Chu that the Zhou was not necessarily supporting Qin, but rather trying to maintain a neutral position between the two powerful states.
In another incident, Qin sought passage through Zhou territories to attack Han. Zhou faced a dilemma: granting passage would anger Han, while refusing would anger Qin. Sima Yan advised the Zhou King to send an emissary to Han and suggest that Han provide land to Zhou as a way of balancing the interests of both Qin and Han. This strategy would help Zhou avoid taking sides and maintain peace.
In the 34th year (281 BCE), the Zhou King was advised by Su Li: “Qin has conquered the states of Han and Wei, defeating the Wei general, Shi Wu, and has advanced northward to capture the two counties of Lin and Lishi in Zhao, all thanks to Bai Qi’s military expertise. This man is highly skilled in warfare and has the favor of heaven on his side. Now he leads his army from the Yi Que pass to attack the state of Liang. If Liang falls, Zhou will be in peril. Why not send someone to persuade Bai Qi? You could tell him: ‘In Chu, there is a famous archer, Yang Youji, who is said to be so skilled that he can shoot an arrow through a leaf from a hundred paces away. Thousands of spectators have witnessed his prowess. However, one day, a man stood beside him and said, “Well, I could teach you to shoot.” Yang Youji, offended, threw down his bow, grasped his sword, and retorted, “What can you teach me?” The man replied, “I am not saying I can teach you how to stretch your left arm to hold the bow or bend your right arm to draw the string. When shooting a leaf from a hundred paces away, one must stop when the arrow is at its most accurate, for if the body grows tired or the bow becomes misaligned, even a single miss will render all subsequent shots useless.” Now, you have already achieved great feats by defeating Han, Wei, and Zhao. Your successes are considerable, but now you face another challenge: crossing the Yi Que pass, turning your back on Han, and attacking Liang. If you fail, your previous efforts will be in vain. It would be wise to feign illness and refrain from leaving the pass to attack Liang.’”
In the 42nd year (273 BCE), Qin captured the city of Huayang in Wei. Ma Fan, a minister of Zhou, approached the Zhou King and requested permission to ask the state of Liang to build a city for Zhou. He went to King Liang and said, “If the Zhou King is ill and passes away, I too will not survive. Please allow me to present the Nine Tripods to Your Majesty. Once you receive them, I hope you will find a way to save me.” King Liang agreed and sent a contingent of soldiers, claiming they were to protect Zhou.
Ma Fan then went to the King of Qin and said, “Liang does not seek to protect Zhou; they intend to attack Zhou. You may send soldiers to the border to verify this.” Qin sent troops as Ma Fan had suggested.
Ma Fan returned to King Liang and said, “The Zhou King has recovered, and the matter of the Nine Tripods has not been settled. Please allow me to find a more suitable time to present them. However, now that you have sent troops to Zhou, the vassal states are beginning to suspect you plan to attack Zhou. If you do not address their concerns, no one will believe you in the future. It would be better to have your soldiers build a city for Zhou to dispel any suspicion of an impending attack.” King Liang agreed, and the soldiers began constructing the city for Zhou.
In the 45th year (270 BCE), a guest of the Qin King advised the Zhou King: “Why not commend the filial piety of the Qin King, and, in the process, offer the land of Ying as a place for the queen mother’s support? The Qin King would certainly be pleased, and this would establish a friendly relationship between you and Qin. If the relationship strengthens, the Zhou King will regard it as your achievement. If the relationship weakens, those who encourage the Zhou King to submit to Qin will certainly be punished.” When Qin prepared to attack Zhou, Zhou Guo advised the Qin King: “If you consider the best interests of your kingdom, you should refrain from attacking Zhou. There is little to gain from such an action, but it will make your reputation feared by the world. This fear will cause the states to ally with Qi to the east. Once your army grows weary from fighting Zhou, the states will unite with Qi, and thus Qin will not achieve unification. The world desires to exhaust Qin, so they encourage you to attack Zhou. If both Qin and the other states are exhausted, your orders will no longer be obeyed.”
In the 58th year (257 BCE), the states of Han, Zhao, and Wei were resisting Qin. Zhou sent an official to Qin, but fearing disdain, he turned back halfway. Someone told the official: “It is uncertain whether Qin regards you with respect or contempt, but they seek information on the three eastern states. You should hasten to meet the Qin King and say, ‘Please allow me to report on the changes in the eastern three states.’ The Qin King will certainly take you seriously. If the Qin King values you, it shows that Qin respects Zhou, and Zhou will thus gain Qin’s trust. As for the respect Qi holds for Zhou, Zhou Guo has already established connections with Qi. This way, Zhou will never lose favor with powerful states.” Trusting Zhou, Qin sent troops to attack Han, Zhao, and Wei.
In the 59th year (256 BCE), Qin captured Yangcheng from Han. The western Zhou was alarmed and betrayed Qin, forming an alliance with the eastern states to lead their elite forces from the Yi Que pass to attack Qin. This action blocked the communication between Qin and Yangcheng. Enraged, King Zhao of Qin sent General Jiu to attack western Zhou. The Zhou King fled to Qin, bowed in apology, and offered all thirty-six cities and thirty thousand people to Qin. Qin accepted the population and land, allowing the Zhou King to return to western Zhou.
After the death of King Wang Nan of Zhou, the people of Zhou fled east. Qin took control of the Nine Tripods and other precious treasures, and relocated the western Zhou noble family to Hu. Seven years later, King Zhuangxiang of Qin destroyed eastern Zhou. Both the eastern and western Zhou states thus fell under Qin’s control, and the ancestral rites of the Zhou dynasty were severed.
The Grand Historian said: Scholars believe that after Zhou defeated the tyrant Zhou, they settled in Luoyi. However, a comprehensive examination of the actual situation suggests otherwise. Luoyi was the site measured by King Wu, and King Cheng sent Zhao Gong to conduct divinations, placing the Nine Tripods there. The Zhou capital remained at Fengyi and Haojing until the Qiang tribe defeated King You of Zhou, and Zhou moved east to Luoyi. The saying “Zhou’s remains were buried at Bi” refers to Bi being located southeast of Haojing, in Du. Qin eventually destroyed Zhou. Over ninety years after the Han Dynasty was established, when the emperor was preparing to offer sacrifices at Mount Tai and passed through Henan, he sought the descendants of Zhou and granted them thirty miles of land. They were titled Zhou Zi Nan Jun and placed among the other nobles, entrusted with the ancestral rites of the Zhou dynasty.