Xia Yu, also known as Wenming, was the son of Gun, whose father was Emperor Zhuangxu. Emperor Zhuangxu’s father was Changyi, and Changyi’s father was the Yellow Emperor. Yu was the great-grandson of the Yellow Emperor and the grandson of Emperor Zhuangxu. Neither Yu’s great-grandfather Changyi nor his father Gun ascended to the throne, but instead served as high-ranking ministers to the Emperor.
During Emperor Yao’s reign, a great flood ravaged the land, inundating mountains and hills, and causing widespread suffering among the people. Emperor Yao sought someone capable of controlling the flood, and the Four Noble Ministers all recommended Gun. However, Yao said, “Gun defies the will of Heaven and has brought ruin to his own kin. He is unfit for this task.” The ministers insisted, “Among all the ministers, there is no one stronger than him. Please allow him to try.” Reluctantly, Yao agreed and appointed Gun to manage the flood.
Nine years passed, but the floodwaters remained unchecked, and Gun’s efforts were deemed unsuccessful. As Yao sought a successor to the throne, he turned to Shun. Shun was appointed as Emperor and began his duties by touring the lands. During his travels, he observed that Gun’s flood management had failed and thus exiled him to Mount Yu, where Gun eventually died. The people believed Shun’s punishment of Gun was just.
Shun then appointed Gun’s son, Yu, to continue his father’s work in flood control.
After Emperor Yao passed away, Shun consulted the Four Noble Ministers, asking, “Who can carry on Yao’s legacy and be entrusted with high office?” The ministers unanimously recommended Yu for the position of Minister of Works, suggesting that he was the one capable of expanding Emperor Yao’s achievements. Shun, agreeing, commanded Yu, “Go and manage the floodwaters and soil. Do this with all your effort.” Yu bowed deeply in gratitude, humbly acknowledging the contributions of figures such as Qi, Hou Ji, and Gao Yao. Shun urged him to proceed swiftly with his duties.
Yu was intelligent, wise, and resilient. He adhered to moral principles, was compassionate, and was known for his trustworthy speech. His voice was the standard for pitch, his body the measure for dimensions. Through his voice and physical form, he could regulate the pitch of music and the length of measurements. He was diligent and serious, serving as a model for all officials.
Upon receiving Shun’s command, Yu, along with Yi and Hou Ji, traveled across the land, instructing feudal lords and officials to organize the forced labor of criminals to manage the nine provinces. He traversed mountains and valleys, setting up markers and measuring the terrain of rivers and mountains. Deeply affected by the failure of his father Gun’s efforts, Yu endured great hardship, living outside for thirteen years. He passed his home without entering, determined to honor his father’s mission. He lived simply, dedicating his wealth to flood management, and traveled by foot, boat, or sled, depending on the terrain. His equipment included a plumb line, a ruler, and instruments for determining directions and measuring the four seasons.
Yu’s efforts were focused on the development of the nine provinces and the regulation of the nine major rivers and lakes. He instructed Yi to distribute rice seeds suitable for wetland cultivation and Hou Ji to assist those suffering from food shortages. During times of famine, he arranged for surplus grain to be redistributed from regions with abundance to those in need.
Yu began his work in Ji Zhou, starting with the construction of the Hukou Gorge project. He then addressed the challenges of Liangshan and its tributaries, proceeding to the Taiyuan region and south of Mount Taiyue. He continued his work in Qinhuai, followed by the management of Hengshui and Zhangshui. The soil in Ji Zhou was soft and white, and the region’s taxes were among the highest. Some areas were ranked second, and the fields were classified as middle-grade. The water systems of Changshui and Weishui were repaired, as were the vast wetlands of the continent.
The northern tribes, known as the Birds and Barbarians, offered tribute in the form of fur garments. Their tribute route passed around Mount Jie and entered the Yellow River.
The region between the Ji and Yellow Rivers was known as Yanzhou. Here, the nine rivers had been dredged, and a large lake had formed at Leixia. The confluence of Yong Shui and Ju Shui flowed into the marsh, where mulberry trees were planted to raise silkworms. This allowed the people to relocate from the mountains to the plains. Yanzhou’s soil was black and fertile, with lush grass and towering trees. The fields here were classified as lower-middle grade, with taxes rated among the lowest. After thirteen years of hard work, the region was brought up to the standard of the other provinces. Yanzhou’s tributes included lacquer, silk, and patterned brocades in bamboo baskets. The tribute route was via the waterway, passing from Ji Shui into Luoshui, and then entering the Yellow River.
Between the sea and Mount Tai lies Qingzhou: After the tribes here were pacified, the waters of the Huai and Zi Rivers were dredged. The soil here is white and fertile, with the coastal areas being wide and saline, and much of the land is alkaline. The fields are classified as middle-grade, or third rank, with taxes falling into the upper-middle category, or fourth rank. The tributes include salt, fine ramie cloth, and occasionally seafood. Additionally, there are silk, hemp, tin, pine wood, and unique stones produced in the valleys of Mount Tai. The Laiyi region is suitable for herding, and thus contributes livestock products, as well as silkworm silk for making stringed instruments, all packed in baskets. Tribute is delivered by waterway, transitioning from Wen River into Ji River.
Between the sea, Mount Tai, and the Huai River lies Xuzhou: In this region, the waters of the Huai and Yi Rivers were managed, and agricultural crops can now be cultivated in the areas surrounding Mount Meng and Mount Yu. The large plains have transformed into a vast reservoir, with the waters of Dongyuan retreating. The soil is reddish, sticky, and fertile, with lush vegetation that grows increasingly abundant. The fields are of upper-middle quality, or second rank, with taxes falling into the middle category, or fifth rank. The tributes include five-colored earth for imperial altars, wild pheasants from the valleys of Mount Yu, the solitary tung trees from the southern slopes of Mount Yi, stone chimes made from floating stones found along the Si River, pearls and fish from the Huaiyi region, and fine black and white silks, which are packed in baskets. Tribute travels by water through the Huai and Si Rivers, then into the Yellow River.
Between the Huai River and the sea lies Yangzhou: Here, Lake Pengli has formed as a resting place for migrating wild geese. The rivers Songjiang, Qiantang, and Puyang flow into the sea, and the Zhenze region has been pacified. The area is dense with bamboo forests, wild grasses, and tall trees. The soil is moist, and the fields are of the lowest quality, or ninth rank, with taxes in the lower-middle category, or seventh rank, occasionally reaching sixth rank. The tributes include three-colored copper, jade such as Yao and Kun, bamboo arrows, ivory, leather, feathers, ox tails, and garments woven from flowers and grasses worn by the island tribes. Additionally, oranges and pomelos, neatly packed for tribute, are also sent. These tributes travel by water, entering the Huai River and Si River, before moving into the Yellow River.
To the south of Mount Jing and Mount Heng lies Jingzhou: In this region, the Yangtze River and Han River empty into the sea. The tributaries of the Yangtze River have been diverted into stable channels, while the Tuo and Cen Rivers have been dredged, and the Yunze and Mengze marshes have been managed. The soil is damp, and the fields are classified as lower-middle, or eighth rank, with taxes falling in the middle-upper category, or third rank. The tributes include feathers, ox tails, ivory, leather, three-colored copper, and wood from trees such as Chunzhi, Zhe, Gui, and Bai. There are also grinding stones, stone for arrowheads, cinnabar, and particularly bamboo and wood used for making arrow shafts, which are the most famous products of the three states near the Han River. Additionally, there are bundles of Qingmiao used for filtering wine in sacrificial rituals, colorful fabrics woven in baskets, and silk ribbons used for beading. On occasion, large turtles from the Nine Rivers are offered as tribute. The tributes travel via the Yangtze River, Tuo River, Cen River, and Han River, before taking a brief land route, entering the Luo River, and finally reaching the Southern River.
Between Jingzhou and the Yellow River lies Yuzhou: The Yi, Luo, Chan, and Jian Rivers have been dredged and now flow into the Yellow River, while the Yingbo River has formed a lake, and the Heze Marsh has been dredged, with embankments built at Mingduze. The soil here is loose and fertile, with black soil in the lowlands. The fields are classified as upper-middle quality, or fourth rank, with taxes in the top-middle category, or second rank, sometimes reaching the highest, or first rank. Tributes include lacquer, silk, fine ramie cloth, hemp, and baskets of fine silk filaments. Occasionally, stones for making jade chimes are offered. Tribute travels by water through the Luo River into the Yellow River.
Between Mount Hua’s southern foot and Heishui lies Liangzhou: The areas around Mount Wen and Mount Manzhong can now be farmed, while the Tuo and Cen Rivers have been dredged, and roads in areas like Mount Cai and Mount Meng have been repaired. Water management has also been successful in the He Yi region. The soil here is a deep bluish-black, and the fields are classified as lower-middle quality, or seventh rank, with taxes falling into the lower category, or eighth rank, sometimes fluctuating between seventh and ninth ranks. The tributes include jade, iron, silver, hard iron for engraving, stone for arrowheads, and stone chimes. Wild animals such as bears, panthers, and foxes are also offered. The textile tribe’s tributes are transported from the western Rong region, passing through Mount Xiqing and the Huan River, then along the Qianshui River, entering the Mianshui River, and eventually traveling by land to reach the Wei River. The final leg of the journey involves crossing the Yellow River to reach the capital.
Between Heishui and the western bank of the Yellow River lies Yongzhou: The weak waters have been successfully managed, flowing westward, while the Jing River merges with the Wei River. Similarly, the Qi River, Ju River, and Feng River all flow into the Wei River. Roads connecting Jing Mountain and Qi Mountain are now open, and the roads from Zhongnan Mountain, Dunwu Mountain, all the way to Niaoshu Mountain have also been completed. Both the highlands and the lowlands have undergone successful reclamation, extending as far as the Duyanze area. The Sanwei Mountain region is now habitable, and the Sanmiao tribes have been thoroughly pacified. The soil here is yellow, loose, and fertile, with fields classified as the highest quality, or first rank, while taxes fall into the lower-middle category, or sixth rank. The tributes include fine jade and precious stones. The tribute route begins at Jishi Mountain, traveling by water to the Xihe River between Longmen Mountain, then merging into the Wei River Bay. The textile tribe resides in the Kunlun, Zhizhi, and Qusou Mountains, with the western Rong tribes also submitting to the emperor’s authority.
Emperor Yu opened roads through nine mountain ranges: One road starts from Qianshan and Qishan, extending to Jing Mountain and crossing the Yellow River; another begins at Hukou Mountain and Leishou Mountain, extending to Taiyue Mountain; another starts from Dizhushan and Xichengshan, reaching Wangwushan; one road from Taihang Mountain and Changshan leads to Jieshi Mountain, where it meets the sea, connecting with water routes; another road from Xiqingshan, Zhuyu Mountain, and Niaoshu Mountain extends to Taihua Mountain; one from Xiong’er Mountain, Waifang Mountain, and Tongbai Mountain reaches Fuwei Mountain; one from Manzhong Mountain extends to Jing Mountain; one from Neifang Mountain extends to Dabieshan; and finally, one from Wen Mountain’s southern slopes crosses Hengshan, the Nine Rivers, and reaches the Fuqianyuan Mountain.
Yu also managed nine major rivers: The weak waters were redirected to He Li, flowing downstream into the desert. The Heishui was dredged, passing through Sanwei Mountain and flowing into the South Sea (Qinghai). The Yellow River was managed starting from Jishi Mountain, passing through Longmen Mountain, and continuing south to Huayin, then turning east through Dizhushan, and continuing to Mengjin. From there, it flowed east through Luoshui, entering the river mouth, and finally reaching Daping. The river then turns north, passes through Jiangshui, and reaches the mainland marshes, where it splits into nine separate rivers. These rivers later converge into one, called the Reverse River, and flow into the sea. The Yangshui was diverted from Manzhong Mountain, flowing east to become the Han River, then continuing east as Canglang Shui, passing through the Shishi River, and reaching Dabieshan. From there, it bends south and joins the Yangtze River, flowing east and merging with the waters of Lake Pengli, eventually reaching the North River, which flows into the sea. The Changjiang River was managed starting from Wen Mountain, with the Tuo River splitting off eastward, continuing to the Li River, passing through the Nine Rivers, and reaching Dongling. It then flows northeast, merging with the waters of Lake Pengli, continuing east as the Zhongjiang River and finally reaching the sea. The Jiyang River was managed eastward to the Jishui River, flowing into the Yellow River. The two rivers meet, overflowing into the Xingze Marsh, and continue eastward past Taoqiu, reaching Heze, and finally converging with Wen River before continuing north into the sea. The Huai River was diverted from Tongbai Mountain, joining the Si and Yi Rivers, and flowing into the sea. The Wei River was managed starting from Niaoshu Mountain, joining Fengshui and Jing Shui, then flowing east through Qi Shui and Ju Shui, finally emptying into the Yellow River. The Luo River was managed from Xiong’er Mountain, joining the Jian and Chan Rivers in the northeast, then merging with the Yi River, before continuing east-northeast into the Yellow River.
All the mountains, rivers, and waterways have been successfully managed. Henceforth, the Nine Provinces were unified, and all lands within the four borders became habitable. The nine mountain ranges were linked by roads, the nine major rivers were navigable, and nine great lakes had protective embankments. The feudal lords from across the seas could now come to the capital to meet and pay tribute. The resources of the six great storage regions of gold, wood, water, fire, earth, and grain were well-regulated, with lands categorized according to their quality and evaluated for tax rates based on three soil grades. The emperor also appointed feudal lords within the Nine Provinces, granting lands and surnames, while commanding: “You must honor virtue above all else, and not violate any of my imperial decrees.”
Yu decreed that the regions outside the imperial capital, extending 500 miles, be designated as “Dianfu,” or lands for tribute, where people were required to provide tax and grain. The areas within 100 miles of the capital were required to pay the full harvest of crops, those from 100 to 200 miles paid grain spikes, those from 200 to 300 miles paid harvested grain, those from 300 to 400 miles provided coarse rice, and those from 400 to 500 miles contributed refined rice. Beyond this, the regions within 500 miles were classified as “Houfu,” or lands of surveillance, where the emperor monitored loyalty and enforced obedience to the royal decrees. The area within 100 miles of the Dianfu was controlled by high-ranking ministers, while the regions 200 miles beyond became smaller feudal kingdoms. Another 300 miles beyond these were lands of lesser lords. The next 500 miles were classified as “Suifu,” or lands under imperial pacification, where the emperor’s moral codes, laws, and rituals were taught. Those within 300 miles were instructed in cultural teachings, while the next 200 miles maintained military defenses to protect the emperor. Beyond this were the “Yaofu,” regions under direct imperial control, where the emperor’s commands were enforced. Further still were the “Huangfu,” desolate lands on the outer borders, where people moved freely without restrictions.
Emperor Shun said, “Do not emulate Dan Zhu, who was arrogant and reckless, indulging in laziness and debauchery. He sailed boats on land where there was no water, gathered people for immoral activities in his home, and ultimately failed to inherit the throne. Such behavior I shall never condone.” Yu replied, “When I married the daughter of the Tu Mountain clan, I left for my duties just four days after the wedding. I never raised my son Qi myself, for I was devoted to the task of managing the waters and securing the land. I assisted the emperor in setting up five administrative regions, extending over five thousand miles, with thirty thousand workers in each province. We expanded until the farthest borders, establishing a leader for every five vassal states. They each performed their duties and achieved merit, except for the rebellious San Miao tribe, who contributed nothing. I hope, Your Majesty, you will remember this matter.”
Emperor Shun replied, “With my moral teachings, your diligent work will surely win their submission.”
At this, Gao Yao, deeply respecting Yu’s achievements, ordered the entire nation to follow Yu’s example. Those who defied the orders were to face legal punishment. Thus, Emperor Shun’s teachings spread widely.
Meanwhile, Kui, the court musician, composed new music. The spirits of ancestors descended to listen, and the lords of the various states exchanged courtesy. Birds and beasts danced around the palace, and the “Xiao Shao” melody was played nine times. The phoenixes were summoned. All the animals danced, and the officials showed their loyalty and harmony. Emperor Shun then sang, “Following the mandate of heaven, practicing virtuous rule, aligning with the times, and acting with careful precision.” He sang again, “The loyal ministers bring joy, the emperor governs well, and the nation flourishes!” Gao Yao knelt, bowing his head to the ground, then rose and said loudly, “Your Majesty, remember to lead by example, to be diligent in your duties, to treat your laws with caution, and to handle all matters with sincerity!” He then continued singing, “The emperor is wise and decisive, the ministers are virtuous, and all things in the world thrive!” He sang once more, “When the emperor lacks grand vision, the ministers grow lax, and the world falls into decay!” Emperor Shun responded, “Yes! We must all strive to manage our respective affairs with care!”
At this time, the world revered Yu for his mastery of measurement and music, honoring him as the ruler of mountains and rivers—an emperor capable of commanding the spirits of the land.
Emperor Shun recommended Yu to heaven as his successor. Seventeen years later, Emperor Shun passed away. After three years of mourning, Yu, in a gesture to honor Shun’s son, Shang Jun, withdrew to Yangcheng. However, the lords of the realm did not pay their respects to Shang Jun, but instead came to honor Yu. It was only then that Yu inherited the throne, receiving the homage of the various lords from the south. He established the dynasty of the Xia, with the surname of the Si family.
After Yu ascended to the throne, he appointed Gao Yao as his successor, recommending him to heaven, and entrusted him with the national governance. However, Gao Yao passed away before assuming the throne. Yu then enfeoffed the descendants of Gao Yao in the territories of Ying and Liu, and some were assigned to the land of Xu. Later, Yu appointed Yi to take over the governance.
Ten years passed, and Emperor Yu journeyed east to inspect the lands. He reached Kuaiji, where he passed away, and the throne passed to Yi. After three years of mourning, Yi, following Yu’s example, handed over the throne to Yu’s son, Qi, and withdrew to the southern part of Mount Ji. Qi was virtuous and earned the support of the people. After Yu’s death, although Yi inherited the throne, his brief tenure as Yu’s assistant meant that the people did not fully accept him. As a result, the lords of the realm left Yi and paid their respects to Qi, saying, “This is the son of our Emperor Yu.” Thus, Qi succeeded to the throne, and he became known as the Emperor of the Xia Dynasty.
Emperor Qi of the Xia Dynasty was the son of Yu and the daughter of the Tu Mountain clan.
After Emperor Qi ascended to the throne, the Hú clan refused to submit. In response, Qi led a military campaign, engaging in a great battle at Gandi. Before the battle began, Qi composed an oath called the “Oath of Gandi” and summoned the six military commanders for a solemn admonition. Qi declared, “Listen, commanders of the six armies! I hereby proclaim my oath: The Hú clan has scorned the Five Virtues—benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trust—and has strayed from the rightful path of heaven, earth, and humanity. Therefore, heaven has decreed their downfall. Now, I humbly execute heaven’s punishment upon them. If the archer on the left side of the chariot fails to shoot the enemy from the left, or if the swordsman on the right fails to strike the enemy from the right, it is an act of disobedience. If the charioteer cannot maintain the proper formation of the chariot and horses, it is also an act of disobedience. Those who obey orders will be rewarded before our ancestral spirits; those who disobey will be executed before the land gods, and their families will be taken as slaves.” As a result, the Hú clan was annihilated, and the realm submitted to Qi.
After Emperor Qi’s death, his son Emperor Tai Kang ascended the throne. Emperor Tai Kang spent his days indulging in hunting and games, neglecting the affairs of the people. Eventually, he was exiled by the archer Yi, losing the state. His five younger brothers, waiting for him at the northern bank of the Luo River, did not see him return and composed the “Song of the Five Sons.”
After Emperor Tai Kang’s death, his brother Zhong Kang succeeded him, becoming Emperor Zhong Kang. During his reign, the officials in charge of the four seasons, the great ministers of the Xia dynasty, the Xi and He clans, became addicted to alcohol, resulting in chaos in the calendar and the seasons. Yi was tasked with confronting them and composed the “Yin Campaign” in response.
After Emperor Zhong Kang’s death, his son Emperor Xiang succeeded the throne. Upon Emperor Xiang’s death, his son Emperor Shao Kang took over. After Emperor Shao Kang’s death, his son Emperor Yu succeeded him. Following Emperor Yu’s death, his son Emperor Huai took the throne. After Emperor Huai’s death, his son Emperor Mang ascended the throne. After Emperor Mang’s death, his son Emperor Xie succeeded him. When Emperor Xie passed, his son, Emperor Bu Jiang, inherited the throne. After Emperor Bu Jiang’s death, his younger brother, Emperor Jiong, succeeded him. After Emperor Jiong’s death, his son, Emperor Jin, took the throne. Upon Emperor Jin’s death, his son, Kong Jia, ascended the throne, becoming Emperor Kong Jia.
After Emperor Kong Jia’s reign, he became increasingly superstitious, engaging in debauched activities. The authority of the Xia dynasty waned, and the lords began to rebel against him. Heaven sent two divine dragons, one male and one female. Kong Jia failed to care for them and could not find anyone capable of doing so. The Tao Tang clan had already declined, but a descendant named Liu Lei, who had learned dragon-taming from others, came to serve Emperor Kong Jia. Kong Jia bestowed upon him the surname Yulong and granted him the lands once held by the descendants of the Shi Wei clan. Later, the female dragon died, and Liu Lei secretly turned it into meat paste and presented it to Kong Jia. After Kong Jia ate it, he sent people to demand more from Liu Lei. Fearing the consequences, Liu Lei fled to the county of Lu.
After Emperor Kong Jia’s death, his son Emperor Gao succeeded him. After Emperor Gao’s death, his son Emperor Fa ascended the throne. Upon Emperor Fa’s death, his son Emperor Lu Gui took over—this was the infamous Emperor Jie. Since the time of Emperor Kong Jia, many vassals had rebelled against the Xia, and Emperor Jie, with his lack of virtue, resorted to violence against the families of his ministers. The officials could no longer bear his tyranny. Emperor Jie summoned Tang, imprisoned him at Xia Tai, and later released him. Tang, cultivating virtue, attracted the loyalty of the lords, who rallied to him. Tang then led his army to confront Emperor Jie, who fled to Ming Tiao, and was eventually exiled, where he died. Jie lamented, saying, “I regret not having killed Tang at Xia Tai, for it is my failure that led to my downfall.” Thus, Tang ascended the throne, overthrowing the Xia dynasty and establishing the Shang dynasty, ruling over the realm. Tang enfeoffed the descendants of the Xia, and by the time of the Zhou dynasty, they were granted lands in Qi.
The Grand Historian wrote that Yu was of the Si family, and his descendants were enfeoffed in various regions, taking their surnames from the country names: the Xia Hou clan, the Hu clan, the Nan clan, the Zhenxun clan, the Tongcheng clan, the Bao clan, the Fei clan, the Qi clan, the Zeng clan, the Xin clan, the Ming clan, and the Zhenge clan. It is said that Confucius once corrected the Xia dynasty’s calendar, and scholars often passed down the teachings of the “Xia Xiao Zheng.” Since the reign of Emperor Yao and Shun, the tribute and tax system had been well-established. It is said that Yu, during his time in the south of the Yangtze River, gathered the lords of the states for an assessment of their achievements. He passed away during this inspection and was buried at Miao Mountain, which was later renamed Kuaiji Mountain in his honor, with “Kuaiji” meaning the “site of assembly and evaluation.”