Emperor Qin Shi Huang was the son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin. King Zhuangxiang had once been sent as a hostage in the Zhao Kingdom, where he, as the grandson of King Zhao of Qin, became familiar with Lü Buwei’s concubine. He took a liking to her, married her, and she later gave birth to Shi Huang. Qin Shi Huang was born in Handan in the 48th year of the reign of King Zhao of Qin (529 BCE). After his birth, he was named Zheng, with the surname Zhao. When he was thirteen, King Zhuangxiang passed away, and Zheng ascended to the throne as the King of Qin.
At that time, the Qin Kingdom had already expanded its borders by annexing Ba and Shu commanderies and Han Zhong, crossed Wan County to occupy Ying, the capital of Chu, and established the Southern Commandery. To the north, it had taken over areas east of Shang Commandery, occupying Hedong, Taiyuan, and Shangdang commanderies. To the east, it reached Xingyang, destroying both the Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou states, and establishing the Three Rivers Commandery. Lü Buwei was the Chancellor, with a fief of 100,000 households, and a title of Marquis of Wenxin. He gathered scholars and guests in an attempt to consolidate power and unite the realm. Li Si was his secretary, and generals such as Meng Ao, Wang Li, and Mao Gong served under him. At the time, the King of Qin was still young, having just ascended the throne, and entrusted state affairs to his ministers.
In the first year of Shi Huang’s reign (246 BCE), a rebellion broke out in Jinyang, and General Meng Ao was sent to suppress it. The rebellion was quelled. In the second year (245 BCE), General Mao Gong attacked Juan Yi, killing 30,000 people. In the third year (244 BCE), Meng Ao attacked the Han Kingdom, capturing thirteen cities. General Wang Li passed away. General Meng Ao launched an attack on Wei, capturing Chang, Yougui, and other cities. That year, a severe famine occurred. In the fourth year (243 BCE), Qin successfully captured Chang and Yougui. In March, military actions halted. The Qin hostages returned from Zhao, and the Crown Prince of Zhao was also sent back to his kingdom. On the 10th day of the 10th month, locusts from the east flew in, darkening the sky. A plague swept across the country. The people presented 1,000 shi of grain to the state and were granted a noble title.
In the fifth year (242 BCE), General Meng Ao again attacked Wei, capturing Suanzao, Yan, Xu, Changping, Yongqiu, and Shanyang cities, bringing twenty cities under Qin control. The Eastern Commandery was established. That winter, thunder struck. In the sixth year (241 BCE), the states of Han, Wei, Zhao, Wei, and Chu jointly attacked Qin, and captured Shouling. Qin sent out troops, and the five states ceased their advance. Qin subsequently captured Wei, and the state of Wei withdrew its forces to Yewang, relying on mountain passes for defense.
In the seventh year (240 BCE), a comet first appeared in the east, then in the north, and again in the west in May. General Meng Ao was killed while attacking Long, Gu, and Qingdu, and the Qin forces withdrew to attack Jixian. The comet appeared continuously for 16 days in the western sky. Queen Dowager Xia passed away.
In the eighth year (239 BCE), the younger brother of King Qin, Prince Chang’an, led an army to attack Zhao, but was met with rebellion in Tunliu. His officers were killed, and the people were relocated to Lintao. The general who had been sent to quell the rebellion, General Bi, also died, and the people of Tunliu revolted again, resulting in a brutal defeat, with their bodies subjected to punishment. The Yellow River fish swarmed to the shore in vast numbers, and people drove horse-drawn carts eastward in search of food.
Lao Ai was granted the title of Marquis of Changxin and given land in Shanyang to reside there. His authority extended over the palace, vehicles, clothes, gardens, and hunting activities, and all matters, large and small, were decided by him. He also took control of the Hexi Taiyuan Commandery.
In the ninth year (238 BCE), a comet again appeared, sometimes streaking across the entire sky. Qin forces attacked the Wei cities of Yuan and Puyang. In April, King Qin stayed in Yongdi, and on the 16th day, the King underwent the adulthood ritual, wearing a crown and donning a sword. The rebellion of Marquis Lao Ai was discovered—he had used the King’s seal and the Queen Dowager’s seal to mobilize the palace guards, officials, and tribal leaders in an attempt to seize the palace. After learning of this, King Qin ordered the Chancellor and other generals to attack Lao Ai. Hundreds were killed in the ensuing battle, and the King granted noble titles to the victors, including the eunuchs involved. Lao Ai and his followers were captured. A nationwide decree was issued: anyone who captured Lao Ai alive would be rewarded with one million coins, and anyone who killed him would be given five hundred thousand coins. Lao Ai and his followers were executed, and their families were exterminated. Those who had served him were given light punishments, like serving as laborers for the ancestral temples for three years. Over 4,000 families were stripped of their titles and relocated to Shugu, residing in Fánglíng County. Though it was late spring, the cold weather caused some deaths from exposure. Yang Duanhe attacked the Yan city. A comet appeared in the west and then in the north, visible for 80 days.
In the tenth year (237 BCE), Chancellor Lü Buwei was dismissed due to his involvement in the Lao Ai rebellion. General Huan Li replaced him. Emissaries from Qi and Zhao arrived to offer congratulations. An advisor from Qi, Mao Jiao, advised King Qin: “The Qin state is striving to conquer the world, but your reputation regarding the exiled Queen Dowager may cause the other feudal lords to turn against you.” In response, King Qin recalled the Queen Dowager from Yongdi and allowed her to reside in the Ganquan Palace.
The Qin state conducted a large-scale purge, expelling foreign officials serving in the Qin government. Li Si petitioned the king, and as a result, the king rescinded the expulsion order. Seizing the opportunity, Li Si persuaded the king to first conquer the Han state to intimidate other states, and thus, the King of Qin sent Li Si to subjugate Han. The King of Han, worried about this move, conspired with Han Fei to weaken Qin.
Wei Liao of Daliang arrived in Qin and advised the king, saying: “With Qin’s immense strength, the feudal lords are like heads of commanderies and counties. However, I fear that the states in the East may unite and launch a surprise attack, much like the downfall of Zhi Bo, King Fuchai, and King Min in the past. I hope Your Majesty does not hesitate to spend wealth on sending gifts to the powerful ministers of these states, to disrupt their alliances. This will cost merely 300,000 gold, and the feudal lords will be utterly defeated.” The King of Qin followed his counsel, meeting Wei Liao on equal terms, sharing his attire and meals. Wei Liao remarked: “The King of Qin has a high nose, large eyes, an eagle’s chest, and a wolf-like voice. He lacks virtue but possesses the heart of a tiger or wolf. When in poverty, he may humble himself before others, but when prosperous, he will easily consume others. As a commoner, I receive his humility, but if the King of Qin achieves his goal of conquering the world, all will become slaves. I cannot continue to associate with him.” Thus, he fled, but the King of Qin discovered this and urgently tried to stop him, appointing him as the highest military commander, continuing to employ his strategies. Li Si assumed control of state affairs.
In the eleventh year (236 BCE), the chief general Wang Jian, along with the deputy general Huan Li and the junior general Yang Duanhe, led the army to attack Ye, but they were unable to capture the city. They first took nine surrounding cities. Wang Jian then diverted his forces to attack Eyu and Liao Yang, leaving Wang Li to continue the siege of Ye. Wang Jian commanded the troops for eighteen days, allowing junior officers with annual salaries of less than one hundred shi to return home, and retained two out of every ten soldiers. Huan Li eventually captured Ye, and Wang Jian ordered him to attack Liyang, while he himself took on the siege of Eyu, both of which fell.
In the twelfth year (235 BCE), Marquis Wenxin, Lü Buwei, passed away and was secretly buried by his guests in the northern part of Mount Mang in Luoyang. As for those among his attendants who mourned his death—those from Jin were expelled from the state, while those from Qin who held official ranks above six hundred shi had their titles revoked and were exiled to Fangling. Those with ranks under five hundred shi, who did not participate in the mourning, were also exiled to Fangling, though their titles were not revoked. From that point onward, anyone who deviated from the righteous path in governance, like Lao Ai or Lü Buwei, would have their families recorded and enslaved, barred from official positions. This policy was strictly enforced. In the fall, the tax and corvée duties of Lao Ai’s attendants in Shu Commandery were waived. At that time, a severe drought affected the nation, lasting from June to August, before the rain finally came.
In the thirteenth year (234 BCE), Huan Li attacked Pingyang in Zhao, killing General Hu Zhe and beheading 100,000. The King of Qin traveled to Henan. In January, a comet appeared in the eastern sky. In October, Huan Li continued his assault on Zhao.
In the fourteenth year (233 BCE), Huan Li attacked Zhao again in Pingyang, capturing Yi’an, defeating the Zhao army, and killing their general. He pacified Pingyang and Wucheng. Han Fei was sent as an envoy to Qin, and Qin adopted Li Si’s strategies, detaining Han Fei, who eventually died in Yunyang. The King of Han requested to submit to Qin as a vassal.
In the fifteenth year (232 BCE), Qin launched a large-scale military campaign, advancing to Ye County and Taiyuan, capturing Langmeng. This year, an earthquake occurred.
In the sixteenth year (231 BCE), in September, the Qin forces were sent to claim the former Han lands in Nanyang, appointing Teng as the acting governor of Nanyang. A decree was issued requiring all men to register their ages for conscription and labor. The state of Wei presented lands to Qin, and the Qin established Liyi as a commandery.
In the seventeenth year (230 BCE), the chief administrator Teng led an attack on Han, capturing King Han An and seizing all of his lands. The area was made a new commandery and named Yingchuan Commandery. Another earthquake occurred. Queen Dowager Huayang passed away, and the people suffered from a great famine.
In the eighteenth year (229 BCE), Qin launched a major campaign against Zhao. Wang Jian led the forces from the Shangdi region, capturing Jingxing. Yang Duanhe, commanding the forces from He’nan, and Qiang Hui attacked Zhao, with Yang Duanhe surrounding Handan.
In the nineteenth year (228 BCE), Wang Jian and Qiang Hui subdued the eastern regions of Zhao, capturing King Zhao. They planned to invade Yan, encamping at Zhongshan. The King of Qin traveled to Handan, where he discovered those who had once been enemies of his family during his time as a hostage in Zhao, and had them all buried alive. The King of Qin returned, passing through Taiyuan and Shang Commandery on his way back to the capital. That year, the Queen Mother passed away. Zhao’s Prince Jia led his family, several hundred people, to Dai, declaring himself King of Dai, and allied with the forces of Yan, encamping in Shanggu Commandery. A great famine struck that year.
In the twentieth year (227 BCE), Crown Prince Dan of Yan, fearing an invasion from Qin, sent the assassin Jing Ke to kill the King of Qin. Upon discovering the plot, the King of Qin had Jing Ke dismembered in public and then dispatched Wang Jian and Xin Sheng to attack Yan. Yan and Dai sent forces to resist Qin, but the Qin army decisively defeated them at the west of the Yishui River.
In the twenty-first year (226 BCE), Wang Ben attacked the Chu Kingdom, and the King of Qin sent reinforcements to Wang Jian’s army, ultimately defeating the forces of Yan’s Crown Prince Dan and capturing the city of Ji in Yan. They took the head of Crown Prince Dan. The King of Yan annexed Liaodong and declared himself king there. Wang Jian, citing illness, retired to his hometown. Rebellions broke out in Xinzheng, and Changping Jun was exiled to Yingcheng. That year, heavy snow fell, accumulating to a depth of twenty-five inches.
In the twenty-second year (225 BCE), Wang Ben attacked Wei, diverting the waters of the Bian River to flood the city of Daliang, causing the city walls to collapse. The King of Wei feigned surrender, and the Qin forces captured all of Wei’s land.
In the twenty-third year (224 BCE), the King of Qin issued another decree summoning Wang Jian, compelling him to lead a military campaign against the Chu state. Wang Jian captured land from Chen County southward to Pingyu County and took the King of Chu captive. The King of Qin then toured the capital of Ying and Chen County. Chu General Xiang Yan supported Changping Jun as the new King of Chu, who subsequently led a rebellion against Qin south of the Huai River.
In the twenty-fourth year (223 BCE), Wang Jian and Meng Wu were dispatched to continue the conquest of Chu, defeating the Chu army. Changping Jun died, and Xiang Yan, facing defeat, took his own life.
In the twenty-fifth year (222 BCE), a large-scale mobilization was launched, with General Wang Ben leading the attack against Liaodong in Yan, capturing King Ji Xi of Yan. Afterward, he turned to attack the Dai state, capturing King Zhao Jia of Dai. Wang Jian thus pacified the lands south of the Yangtze River, subdued the leaders of the Yue tribes, and established Kuaiji Commandery. In May, Qin celebrated the conquest of the five states by issuing a decree permitting the people to gather and drink in celebration.
In the twenty-sixth year (221 BCE), King Tian Jian of Qi and his Chancellor Hou Sheng stationed troops to defend Qi’s western borders and sever all communication with Qin. The King of Qin sent General Wang Ben, traveling through Yan, to launch an attack on Qi. Wang Ben captured King Tian Jian of Qi.
After Qin had unified the empire, the King of Qin issued an order to the Chancellor and the Censor, saying: “In the past, the King of Han offered lands and seals, requesting to serve as a guardian of the border. Soon, however, he broke his oath and allied with Zhao and Wei to rebel against Qin, so I sent troops to punish them, capturing the King of Han. This was a wise move, for it may have brought an end to the war. The King of Zhao sent his Chancellor Li Mu to negotiate a treaty, so I returned their hostages. But they soon violated the agreement, and I sent troops to punish them, capturing the King of Zhao. Zhao’s Prince Jia declared himself King of Dai, so I sent troops to destroy Zhao. The King of Wei initially agreed to submit to Qin, but he later conspired with Han and Zhao to attack Qin. I sent troops, and we finally defeated them. The King of Chu offered lands west of Qingyang, but soon broke his oath, attacking our southern regions. I sent troops and captured the King of Chu, bringing peace to Chu. The King of Yan was confused, and his Crown Prince Dan secretly sent the assassin Jing Ke to kill me. When I discovered this, I sent troops to destroy Yan. King Tian Jian of Qi, following Hou Sheng’s counsel, severed all diplomatic relations with Qin, hoping to incite rebellion. I sent troops and captured the King of Qi, pacifying the land. With my humble strength, I have quelled rebellions through the aid of my ancestors’ divine will. The kings of the six states have faced their just punishment, and the world is at peace. Now, if I do not change my title, I will not be able to fully display my achievements and pass them down to future generations. Let us deliberate on an imperial title.”
Chancellor Wang Wan, Chief Censor Feng Jie, and Chief Minister Li Si all advised: “In the past, the lands of the Five Emperors stretched a thousand miles in all directions, with territories like the Marquis and Yi regions outside their control. Some feudal lords paid tribute, while others did not, and the Son of Heaven could not maintain dominion over them. Now, you, Your Majesty, have raised an army of righteousness, punished the remaining rebels, pacified the land, established commanderies and counties across the empire, and unified the law, a feat never seen before, surpassing even the Five Emperors. After much careful consideration, we, your humble servants, suggest that the highest title used in ancient times was that of ‘Taihuang,’ the Most Honorable Emperor. We thus propose that you be addressed as ‘Taihuang,’ and that the orders be called ‘Zhi Shu’ and the edicts ‘Zhao Shu.’ The Son of Heaven will refer to himself as ‘Zhen.’”
The King of Qin responded, “Remove the word ‘Tai,’ and retain only ‘Huang,’ adopting the ancient imperial title of ‘Emperor,’ while proceeding with the rest as you suggest.” A decree was issued to this effect, and the former King Zhuangxiang was posthumously honored as the Supreme Emperor.
The King continued, “I have heard that in ancient times, there were titles but no posthumous names. In the middle ages, titles were given, and after death, posthumous names were assigned based on one’s deeds. This practice allows children to judge their fathers and ministers to judge their rulers, which is meaningless. From now on, the practice of posthumous naming shall be abolished. I shall be called the First Emperor, and all future emperors will follow in my footsteps, passing down the title from the Second Emperor, Third Emperor, and so on, for all eternity.”
The First Emperor of Qin, following the principles of the Five Elements (Water, Fire, Wood, Metal, Earth) and their cycles of creation and destruction, reasoned that the Zhou Dynasty represented the element of fire. To replace the Zhou, Qin must embody the opposing element of water, marking the start of a new era. Therefore, he declared that the new year would begin in the year of water. Accordingly, on the first day of the tenth month, all officials and the people would come to pay homage and congratulations.
The King of Qin also decreed that the attire, seals, and banners of the empire would all be styled in black, as black represents water, the element associated with the Yin (阴) symbol in the Book of Changes, which signifies beginning and origin. He further decreed that all official insignia and law-related symbols would be measured by six inches, symbolizing the ultimate cycle. The width of the imperial carriage would be set at six feet, with six feet as the standard step, and six horses pulling a vehicle would be the norm. The Yellow River was renamed “De Shui,” signifying the commencement of the Water Element.
Firm and severe, all matters were to be decided by the law, with harsh punishments and no leniency granted to lawbreakers.
Chancellor Wang Wan and others advised, “The feudal lords have just been defeated. States like Yan, Qi, and Chu are distant and not yet fully pacified. We must appoint kings to maintain control over these regions.” The First Emperor agreed to the suggestion and decreed the appointment of his sons as rulers over the conquered regions. However, Li Si argued, “In ancient times, the Kings of Zhou granted lands to their sons and relatives, but their descendants grew distant, warring amongst themselves as enemies. Now that the empire is unified under Your Majesty’s divine mandate, it is best to keep the territories divided into commanderies and counties, using taxes to reward loyal officials. This will make it easier to control and prevent rebellion. Setting up new kingdoms for your sons will only sow discord.”
The First Emperor agreed, “In the past, the people suffered endless war because of the feudal lords. Now that the divine will of my ancestors has unified the land, creating new feudal states would only reignite conflict in the name of peace. Li Si is correct.”
Thus, the empire was divided into thirty-six commanderies, each governed by a commandant, a magistrate, and a supervisor. The people were henceforth referred to as “Qianshou” (commoners). A nationwide decree was issued allowing for a public feast to celebrate the occasion. All weapons were collected and brought to Xianyang, where they were melted down and recast into a great bell and twelve copper statues, each weighing twelve thousand jin. These were placed within the imperial palace. Unified laws were established, along with standardized measurements and weights. The width of the imperial carriage tracks was standardized, and the script used for writing was unified into the clerical script. The empire’s borders extended from the Eastern Sea and Korea in the east, to Lintao and the Qiang regions in the west, to the northern boundary of the Northern Huns, and in the south, to the northern gates of the great mountains. The territory stretched along the Yin Mountain to the east, reaching the Liaodong Commandery.
A decree was issued to relocate 120,000 wealthy families to Xianyang. Notable buildings like the ancestral temples, the Zhangtai Palace, and the Shanglin Park were built along the southern banks of the Wei River. Whenever a state was conquered, the design of its royal palace was replicated on the northern slopes of Xianyang, along the south of the Wei River. From Yong Gate, eastward to the confluence of the Jing and Wei rivers, majestic palace halls were connected by bridges and a winding corridor. The beautiful women and musical instruments taken from the conquered states were placed in these newly constructed halls.
In the twenty-seventh year (220 BCE), Emperor Qin Shi Huang traveled to inspect Longxi and Beidi, crossing Mount Jitou and passing through Huizhong. He then constructed the Xin Palace on the southern bank of the Wei River. Shortly after, he renamed it the “Ji Temple,” symbolizing the North Star at the celestial pole. A road was opened from Ji Temple to Mount Li, where he built the front hall of Ganquan Palace, and he constructed a walled passageway from Xianyang to Mount Li. That year, an imperial decree granted noble titles to officials.
In the twenty-eighth year (219 BCE), the Emperor toured the eastern commanderies, climbing Mount Yixian in Zou County. He erected a stone tablet there, and convened scholars from the Lu region to discuss inscribing a monument to extol the virtues of the Qin dynasty. He also deliberated on performing a heavenly sacrifice at Mount Tai, an earthly sacrifice at Liangfu Mountain, and distant rites at other famous mountains and rivers. The Emperor ascended Mount Tai, erected a stone tablet, and built an earthen altar for the grand heavenly ceremony. As he descended, a sudden storm broke out, and the Emperor took shelter under a tree. In gratitude for the tree’s shelter, he bestowed the title “Wudafu” (Five Ministers) upon it. Subsequently, an earth sacrifice ceremony was held at Liangfu Mountain, where another stone tablet was inscribed with an epitaph. The inscription read:
“When the Emperor ascended the throne, he established bright and clear laws, and his ministers served with prudence and reverence. In the twenty-sixth year (221 BCE), the empire was unified, and all regions submitted to the central authority. The Emperor personally toured distant lands and ascended Mount Tai to survey the vast expanse to the east. His ministers reflected on his great deeds and traced his achievements to their origin, paying homage to his boundless virtues. The measures of governance were established, and the various industries flourished, all in accordance with proper order. The Emperor’s great righteousness and clarity shall be passed down to future generations, never to be forgotten. The Emperor, in his wisdom and virtue, personally brought peace to the land and never ceased to care for the state’s welfare. Rising early and working late, he devoted himself to long-term plans and the promotion of moral education. His decrees were transmitted to all corners, and his will was universally respected. Social orders were clearly defined, with distinctions between the noble and the common, the male and the female, all carrying out their duties with caution. The realm was enlightened and peaceful, and future generations shall inherit this virtuous rule. Education and law shall extend forever, and the imperial edicts shall be upheld for all time.”
(Note: The twenty-sixth year corresponds to 221 BCE.)
The Emperor continued his journey along the Bohai Sea to the east, passing through Huang County and Fen County, before climbing to the summit of Mount Cheng. He then ascended Mount Zhifu, where he erected another stone tablet, praising the accomplishments of the Qin Dynasty, before moving on.
He traveled south to Mount Langya, where he was greatly pleased and stayed for three months. During this time, he relocated 30,000 households to the base of Langya Terrace and exempted them from taxes and labor for twelve years. He also constructed Langya Terrace and had a stone inscription carved to commemorate the Qin Dynasty’s merits and to express his satisfaction in fulfilling his wishes. The inscription read:
“In the twenty-eighth year, the Emperor ascended the throne. He rectified all laws, established order in the world, and made clear the proper conduct of human affairs, advocating filial piety and kindness. The Emperor’s wisdom, benevolence, and righteousness illuminated the way for all. He personally visited the eastern lands to comfort the people and inspect the soldiers. The great enterprise had been completed, and now he toured the coastal regions. The Emperor’s great achievements stemmed from his tireless work in the fundamental matters of state. He implemented policies that prioritized agriculture over commerce, to enrich the people. Across the empire, all followed the Emperor’s will. He unified measures, weights, and the written script. Wherever the sun and moon shone, wherever carriages and ships traveled, all followed the imperial commands, and everyone found contentment. The Emperor’s governance followed the natural rhythms of the seasons, ensuring that the Qin Empire prospered. He addressed the needs of the common people with deep compassion, working day and night without rest. Laws were clarified, and no one dared to break the law. Officials were appointed to their proper roles, and each level of governance was managed efficiently and fairly. The Emperor, in his sagacity, personally inspected all regions, ensuring that no one violated the established orders. High and low, noble and common, all were bound by their stations. Corruption and deceit were not tolerated, and loyalty and virtue were prized. No matter the size of the task, the Emperor worked tirelessly for the betterment of his people. No matter how distant or near, the Emperor’s rules were enforced with solemnity and respect. His integrity and kindness ensured the longevity of his reign. The Emperor’s great benevolence and virtue brought peace to all regions, eradicating disasters and calamities. His policies benefited the state, ensuring prosperity in agriculture and industry. The common people lived in peace, free from the burden of war. Families were united, and banditry was eliminated. The people embraced education, and all were well-versed in the law. The land under heaven, from the west beyond the deserts, to the south reaching the northern gates, to the east touching the Eastern Sea, and to the north beyond the land of Daye, was all the Emperor’s territory. Everywhere that humanity existed, all subjects paid homage to the Emperor. His achievements surpassed those of the Five Emperors, and his benevolence reached every corner of the empire, benefiting all lives and ensuring harmony in every household.”
The King of Qin, having unified the realm, adopted the title of Emperor and personally journeyed to the eastern territories to pacify the people, reaching Langya. Among the nobles who accompanied him were Marquis Wucheng Wang Li, Marquis Tongwu Wang Ben, Marquis Lunzhao Zhao Hai, Marquis Lun Chang Wu Chen, Marquis Lun Wuxin Feng Wuze, Chancellor Kui Lin, Chancellor Wang Wan, Minister Li Si, Minister Wang Wu, and the five prominent officials Zhao Ying and Yang Jiu. Together, they discussed the Emperor’s great achievements, with one voice declaring:
“Ancient emperors ruled over lands no larger than a thousand miles, with vassals guarding their allotted territories, with differing protocols for court appearances. Wars and invasions were frequent, and chaos and bloodshed were rampant. Even so, they carved their names into stone and metal to boast of their deeds. The Five Emperors and the Three Kings, though varied in wisdom and teachings, failed to establish clear laws, relying on the influence of gods to oppress distant lands. Their reigns were short-lived, for even before their deaths, vassals had already betrayed them, and their laws had become hollow. Yet today, the Emperor has unified the entire realm, established prefectures and counties, and brought peace and stability to all. He has honored the ancestors’ temples and enacted just and virtuous governance. The Emperor’s title is one of great success, and all his ministers extol his achievements, which are inscribed in stone and metal as an eternal legacy.”
After the inscription was completed, the people of Qi, led by Xu Shi, sent a petition claiming that within the Eastern Sea were three sacred mountains—Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou—where immortals were said to reside. They requested to fast and bathe before embarking on a journey with young boys and girls in search of these immortals. Xu Shi was tasked with selecting thousands of youths for the quest.
When the Emperor returned to the capital, he passed through Pengcheng, where he performed rites and prayers in an attempt to retrieve the Zhou Ding, which had fallen into the Si River. He sent a thousand men to dive into the waters in search, but it could not be found. He then crossed the Huai River to the southwest and traveled to Mount Heng and Nan Commandery. He sailed down the river to the Xiang Mountain Temple, but was met with fierce winds that nearly prevented him from crossing. The Emperor inquired of the scholar, “Who is the god of Mount Xiang?” The scholar replied, “It is said that this is the tomb of Emperor Yao’s daughter and Emperor Shun’s wife.” The Emperor, enraged, ordered three thousand convicted criminals to fell every tree on Mount Xiang. The mountain, made of red earth, was transformed into a reddish hue. The Emperor then traveled back through Wuguan to the capital.
In the twenty-ninth year (218 BCE), the Emperor undertook a tour of the eastern lands. Upon reaching Yangwu County and the Boliang Sands, he was ambushed by Zhang Liang and a strongman assassin. The assassin missed and struck the imperial chariot instead, frightening the Emperor. Despite attempts to capture the assailant, he escaped, and the Emperor ordered a large-scale search for ten days across the nation.
Upon reaching Mount Zhifu, the Emperor inscribed another stone tablet, the text of which read:
“In the twenty-ninth year, during the second month of spring, as the sun’s energy rises, the Emperor journeyed eastward to explore the vast seas. His ministers praised the scenery and celebrated the early successes of his reign. The wise ruler established a system of law and governance, setting clear standards for conduct. He guided the vassals with righteousness, spreading benevolence and justice. The kings of the six states were greedy and never satisfied, ruling with cruelty and recklessness. The Emperor, compassionate toward the people, dispatched his armies to quell the unrest, achieving great victories. His noble deeds spread across the land, with all under heaven submitting to his authority. The Emperor eradicated violence and brought peace to all regions. His laws were enforced universally, and the empire prospered in peace and harmony. Truly, it is a magnificent accomplishment! The Heavenly Mandate is shared by all, and the Emperor’s wisdom is universally respected. His ministers sing his praises, requesting that his deeds be inscribed in stone for all time to follow.”
In the Eastern Commandery, another stone inscription read:
“In the twenty-ninth year, during the spring, the Emperor ventured far to the east, arriving at the shores of the Eastern Sea. He climbed Mount Zhifu, where he witnessed the first rays of the morning sun. Looking out over the vast and magnificent landscape, his ministers reflected upon his brilliant governance. The Emperor’s laws were newly enacted, purging old customs within and vanquishing violence beyond. His military might spread across the four corners of the empire, subjugating the six kings. He unified the realm and eradicated calamities, ensuring peace and stability for all. His governance was enlightened, with all ranks and duties clearly defined. The people’s customs were reformed, and the laws of the land were upheld uniformly. The Emperor’s wise rule will be passed down to future generations. The ministers extol his great virtue, praising his magnificent deeds, and requesting that they be etched into stone for eternal remembrance.”
Not long after, the Emperor proceeded to Langya and, after passing through Shangdang, returned to the capital.
In the thirtieth year (217 BCE), there were no notable events.
In the thirty-first year (216 BCE), in the month of December, a popular folk song suggested that the Emperor might seek immortality. Motivated by this, the Emperor renamed the twelfth month as “Jiaping” (Prosperous Peace). He decreed that every district would receive six shi of rice and two sheep. That winter, the Emperor, dressed in common clothes and accompanied by four bodyguards, ventured out and encountered bandits at Lan Pond. In a dangerous encounter, the bodyguards killed the bandits, and the Emperor ordered a large-scale search for twenty days in the Guanzhong region. The price of rice soared to 1,600 coins per shi.
In the thirty-second year (215 BCE), the Emperor set out for Jieshi, dispatching Lu Sheng from the state of Yan to seek the immortality elixirs from the alchemists Xianmen and Gaoshi. Upon reaching Jieshi Mountain, the Emperor ordered the inscription of a stone tablet at the mountain’s entrance, which recorded the following:
“The Emperor, by summoning his armies and using force, eradicated the tyrannical rulers and quelled the rebellions. His military might vanquished the lawless and restored justice, winning the hearts and loyalty of the people. Rewards were distributed to those who served, and even cattle and horses received blessings. The Emperor’s grace was felt throughout the land, extending his benevolence to all. His divine power revived the morale of the people and brought unity, peace, and stability to the entire realm. The ancient cities of the East were dismantled, and rivers and embankments were cleared and rerouted. The land was leveled, and burdensome taxes and forced labor were abolished, leading to a prosperous society where men gladly toiled in the fields, and women engaged in their crafts, all under harmonious order. The Emperor’s benevolence embraced all industries, fostering diligent agricultural work and contentment in every home. The ministers extolled these achievements, requesting that this inscription be engraved in stone as a timeless example.”
Subsequently, the Emperor sent Han Zhong, Hou Gong, and Shi Sheng to search for the elixir of immortality. The Emperor then toured the northern borders, passing through Shangjun and returning to the capital. Lu Sheng, who had been sent to the sea to seek immortals, returned with a report of a mysterious prophecy. He presented a book of divination, claiming that “the fall of the Qin dynasty will come from the Hu.” The character “Hu” was interpreted by some as referring to Hu Hai, but the Emperor, not understanding, ordered General Meng Tian to lead an army of 300,000 to attack the northern Hu tribes and seize land south of the Yellow River.
In the thirty-third year (214 BCE), the Emperor conscripted escaped convicts, criminals who had been bound to wealthy families as slaves, and merchants to conquer the region of Luliang. New administrative regions were established, such as Guilin, Xiang, and Nanhai, with exiled individuals assigned to defend them. The Emperor also expelled the Xiongnu from the northwest. From Yuzhong along the Yellow River, a continuous line of fortifications was built, dividing the region into forty-four counties. A series of walls and fortresses were constructed, and Meng Tian was sent across the Yellow River to take control of the areas around Gaoque, Yangshan, and Beijia, establishing strongholds to drive out the barbarian tribes. Exiled individuals were relocated to populate the newly established counties. A decree was issued banning the worship of celestial bodies related to agriculture. During this time, a comet appeared in the western sky.
In the thirty-fourth year (213 BCE), the Emperor exiled corrupt judges to help build the Great Wall and defend the southern borders of Yue.
At a banquet in the Xianyang Palace, seventy scholars presented wine and recited celebratory speeches for the Emperor’s longevity. Zhou Qingchen, the Imperial Chancellor, stepped forward and praised the Emperor: “In the past, the Qin state was no more than a thousand miles in size. Thanks to Your Majesty’s divine wisdom and power, you have pacified the world, driving out the barbarian tribes. Wherever the sun and moon shine, all lands submit to your rule. You have reorganized the feudal states into counties, ensuring that all people can live in peace without fear of war. Your achievements will endure for millennia, unmatched by any ruler of the past.” The Emperor, pleased by this praise, listened intently.
However, the scholar Chunyu Yue stepped forward and expressed his concerns: “I have heard that the Shang and Zhou dynasties ruled for over a thousand years, rewarding their children and ministers with land and power to aid them in governance. Now, Your Majesty rules over the entire world, yet your heirs remain commoners. Should a crisis arise, like the assassination attempts of ministers such as Tian Chang of Qi or the Six Ministers of Jin, who will come to your aid? It is said that no one who departs from the wisdom of the past can endure. Zhou Qingchen, in his flattering words, has only exacerbated Your Majesty’s oversight. This is not the counsel of a loyal servant.”
The Emperor, having listened to both perspectives, shared them with his ministers. Chancellor Li Si responded: “The systems of the Five Emperors and the Three Kings were not repeated from one dynasty to another. The customs of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties were not meant to be perpetuated; they were shaped by the circumstances of their time. Now, Your Majesty has founded a great legacy that will last forever. This is beyond the comprehension of scholars who follow the ways of the past. Moreover, the example set by Chunyu Yue is based on outdated customs from three dynasties long ago. It is not worth emulating. In the past, vassal states were constantly at war, which gave rise to a large number of wandering scholars. Today, the empire is unified, and the laws are decreed by Your Majesty alone. The people, both commoners and scholars, should dedicate themselves to agriculture, production, and the study of the law, not to the imitation of ancient practices. Yet, some scholars continue to criticize our laws, spreading confusion and distorting the present to praise the past.”
Li Si continued, “In ancient times, when the world was in chaos, the vassals claimed that the ancient ways were superior, undermining the present. They twisted the facts and caused confusion. Now, the Emperor has united the world, and his decisions are final. Yet, private scholars continue to challenge the law, sowing discord among the people and undermining the authority of the Emperor. This must be stopped, for if not, the Emperor’s authority will weaken and factions will form.”
With this, Li Si, in a bold move, proposed that all books not related to Qin be burned. Only the books maintained by the Imperial Academy would remain. Any scholar found in possession of texts like the “Book of Songs,” the “Book of Documents,” or the writings of other schools of thought would face execution. Those who spoke of such texts would also face death. Local officials were required to report any such collections, and those who did not comply would face punishment. Thirty days after the decree was issued, anyone who failed to burn such books would suffer public branding and exile to the frontier to work on defense and fortifications. The only books exempt from this decree would be those on medicine, divination, and agriculture. Those wishing to study the law were to learn from the official texts provided by the government.
The Emperor, upon hearing the proposal, issued the command: “Let it be done.”
In the 35th year of his reign (212 BCE), Qin Shi Huang began the construction of roads, extending from Jiuyuan all the way to Yunyang. The work involved leveling mountains and filling river valleys, creating a straight and uninterrupted path. At this time, the Emperor thought that the population of Xianyang was too large and the palace of the previous kings too cramped. He heard that King Wen of Zhou had established his capital in Feng, and King Wu in Hao (pronounced “Hao”), and between Feng and Hao lay the true capital of an emperor. Therefore, he decided to build his imperial palace in the Shanglin Garden, south of the Weishui River. First, he constructed the front hall in Epang (pronounced “E Pang”), which was 500 paces long from east to west and 50 zhang wide from north to south. The palace could accommodate 10,000 people, and large flags, 5 zhang tall, could be erected in the courtyard. Around the palace, skybridges were built for fast movement, connecting the palace directly to the South Mountain, where a gateway was constructed as a landmark. Another skybridge was built across the Weishui River, linking Epang Palace to Xianyang, symbolizing the Northern Pole star and the Heavenly Way, which crossed the Milky Way to reach the celestial realms. The Epang Palace was never completed; the Emperor had planned to give it a name after its completion, but because the construction took place in Epang, the palace became commonly known by that name. Over 700,000 people who had suffered from castration or corporal punishment were assigned to work on the construction of the palace, while some were sent to build the Lishan Mountain tomb. Stone was mined from the northern mountains, and timber was transported from the Shu and Jing regions. A total of 300 palaces were built within Guanzhong, and 400 were built beyond its borders. To mark the eastern boundary of the Qin Empire, a large stone was erected on Qu Mountain by the East Sea, symbolizing the eastern gate of the empire. For this project, 30,000 families were relocated to Liyi and 50,000 families to Yunyang, all exempt from taxes and labor for ten years.
Lu Sheng advised the Emperor: “We have searched for the lingzhi mushrooms, miraculous herbs, and immortals, but they remain elusive, as if something is preventing their appearance. We think that the Emperor should frequently travel secretly to expel evil spirits. Once the spirits have fled, the immortals will come. If the place where the Emperor resides is known, it will hinder the arrival of immortals. True immortals can walk on water without becoming wet, and enter fire without being harmed. They can ride on clouds and live as long as heaven and earth. Now the Emperor governs the world, but has not yet achieved peace and serenity. We suggest that the Emperor’s palace should remain secret, and perhaps the elixir of immortality may be found.” To this, Qin Shi Huang replied, “I envy the immortals, so I shall call myself ‘Zhenren’ (True Immortal) from now on, no longer ‘Zhen’ (I).” He then ordered that all 270 palaces and temples within a 200-li radius of Xianyang be connected by skybridges and corridors, placing banners, bells, and beautiful women within them. Everything was to remain in its designated place, and any leaks of information about the Emperor’s whereabouts would be punishable by death. On one occasion, the Emperor visited Liangshan Palace and, from the mountain top, saw that the Prime Minister’s entourage was too large, which displeased him. A eunuch in the inner court reported this to the Prime Minister, who afterward reduced the size of his procession. Furious, the Emperor said, “Someone in the palace has leaked my words.” After an investigation, no one confessed, so the Emperor ordered the arrest and execution of all those present, ensuring that no one ever knew the Emperor’s movements again. All government business was conducted within the Xianyang Palace.
Hou Sheng and Lu Sheng discussed the Emperor’s nature: “The Emperor is naturally brutal and tyrannical, believing himself to be unrivaled. He rose from a feudal lord to unite the empire, achieving everything he desired, and considers no one to be his equal. He specifically employs officials in charge of prisons, who are highly favored and trusted. Though there are 70 scholars, they serve only as nominal positions. The Prime Minister and other high-ranking officials merely carry out pre-decided orders, acting according to the Emperor’s will. The Emperor believes in using harsh laws and executions to maintain authority, which causes his officials to fear for their positions and avoid genuine loyalty. As a result, no one dares to speak out against his faults, and he grows more arrogant with each passing day. His officials, in fear, resort to deceit and flattery. The laws of the Qin state that if a practitioner of Taoism has two different practices, they must be executed if their predictions fail. Yet, over 300 astrologers and soothsayers try to predict the Emperor’s fate, but none dare speak the truth for fear of punishment. The Emperor makes all decisions, down to the weight of bamboo slips for records, which must be completed within a set time, or no rest is allowed. He is so obsessed with power that we cannot waste our time seeking out immortality for him.” Thus, they decided to flee.
When the Emperor learned that the two had fled, he became enraged and said, “I had previously ordered all useless books to be burned, and called on learned scholars and those skilled in various arts to revive peace and search for immortality. Today, I hear that Han Zhong has left without permission. Men like Xu Shi, who spent thousands, found nothing, and only news of their illegal dealings reaches me. I had honored and rewarded Lu Sheng and others, and now they slander me, trying to accuse me of lacking virtue. These men are in Xianyang, and I have ordered them investigated. Some have spread rumors and caused unrest among the people.” He sent officers to investigate, and they accused one another. The Emperor personally had 460 people removed from the registry and buried alive in Xianyang, as a warning to others. He ordered more exiles to be sent to the border for military service.
The Emperor’s eldest son, Fusu, advised: “The empire has just been pacified, and many distant people have not yet been incorporated. The scholars are still studying Confucian classics, following the ways of Confucius. Now the Emperor is using harsh laws against them, and I fear the empire will not be stable.” The Emperor became furious and sent Fusu to supervise General Meng Tian’s troops in the north.
In the 36th year of his reign (211 BCE), Mars entered the heart of the constellation, a sign of misfortune for the Emperor. A falling star landed in Dongjun and turned into a stone. Local people inscribed “When the Emperor dies, the land will be divided” on it. When the Emperor heard of it, he sent officials to investigate, but no one confessed. He ordered the execution of all those living near the stone and had it burned. The Emperor, displeased, had scholars compose a poem called “The Immortal True Man” and commanded musicians to perform it as he traveled. During autumn, a messenger traveling through Huayin encountered a man holding a jade bi and told him, “Deliver this to Lord Haochi, for this year the ancestor dragon will die.” When asked how he knew, the man vanished, leaving the jade behind. The messenger brought the jade to the Emperor, who fell silent for a while and then remarked, “Spirits in the mountains can only foresee a year’s worth of events.” By autumn, the Emperor said, “The year is almost over, so these words may not come true.” When the court ended, he added, “The ancestor dragon refers to the forebears of men,” thus interpreting the “ancestor” as a dead ancestor and denying any connection to himself. The Emperor ordered a check on the jade bi, which turned out to be the same one that had sunk in the river during his inspection tours in the 28th year of his reign. He then consulted diviners, who advised that moving people was auspicious. As a result, he ordered the relocation of 30,000 families to the Beihe and Yuzhong regions, granting each family a rank.
In the thirty-seventh year (210 BCE), on the tenth day of the month Gui Chou, Emperor Shi Huang embarked on an official tour. Chancellor Li Si accompanied him, while Chancellor Feng Qiji remained in the capital to oversee affairs. The Emperor’s youngest son, Hu Hai, expressed a desire to join the journey, and the Emperor granted his request. In November, they reached Yunmeng and, from the peak of Mount Jiuyi, performed a distant ritual to honor the memory of Emperor Yu Shun. They then traveled by boat along the Yangtze River, passing through the regions of Jike and Hǎizhǔ, crossing the waters near Danyang, and eventually reaching Qiantang. Upon approaching the border of Zhejiang, they encountered perilous waters, prompting them to divert westward for 120 miles, navigating a narrow passage of the river. Ascending Mount Kuaiji, they performed a sacrificial rite to honor the great Yu, the founder of the Xia Dynasty, and gazed out toward the Southern Sea. At this spot, they erected a stone monument, inscribed with a eulogy to the Qin Dynasty’s achievements. The inscription read:
“The Emperor’s great deeds have unified and pacified the world. His virtue and grace are profound and enduring. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign, His Majesty personally toured the realm, visiting distant lands and observing customs. Upon reaching Mount Kuaiji, he investigated the ways of the people, who greeted him with reverence and admiration. Ministers praised his accomplishments, recounting the wisdom and strength of the Emperor’s reign. The great King of Qin ascended to the throne, established laws, and clarified the codes of the past. He created just systems and prudent regulations, ensuring a lasting order for the empire. The rulers of the Six States were tyrannical, greedy, arrogant, and ruthless, relying on numbers to dominate. They wreaked havoc through force and aggression, deceitfully securing spies and forming secret alliances. They lied to their people and invaded our borders, bringing disaster upon themselves. The Emperor, upholding righteousness, vanquished the rebels and criminals, bringing peace and harmony to the realm. His virtues are as vast as the heavens, with his benevolence extending to all lands, without boundary or end. The Emperor has united the world, overseeing all matters, both near and far, with clarity and integrity. He rules all things, investigating and recording all names, ensuring the unity of the people. The law is equally accessible to all, and there is no room for secrecy. In his governance, he punishes immorality, such as a wife abandoning her husband or a man acting without honor. He upholds decorum and discipline, requiring both men and women to remain faithful. Those who break these rules, whether adulterers or runaway wives, are disciplined and reformed. The Emperor’s rule has cleansed society, and the people, guided by his laws, embrace a new spirit of civility. Everyone follows the established order, contributing to the peace and prosperity of the empire. All citizens are diligent in upholding the law, ensuring a stable and harmonious kingdom. The future generations will honor the Emperor’s sacred law, and the peace of the land will never falter. The people shall live free from calamity, and the wheels of chariots and boats shall never capsize. Ministers have praised the Emperor’s extraordinary deeds and requested that this inscription be carved in stone, a lasting beacon for future generations.”
The Emperor then returned, passing through the Wu region, crossing the river at Jiang County, and traveling north along the coast to Langya. The alchemist Xu Shi and others had been searching for the elixir of immortality in the sea for several years, but had found nothing, spending vast sums of money. Fearing punishment, they fabricated a story: “The elixir of immortality can be found at Penglai, but it is guarded by great sharks, making it impossible to reach. We suggest the Emperor send skilled archers, armed with crossbows capable of continuous fire, to deal with these sharks.”
Emperor Shi Huang dreamed of battling the Sea God, whose form resembled a man. He called upon the court diviners to interpret the dream, and they explained, “The Water God is invisible, relying on great fish and dragons as spies. Now that the Emperor has performed rituals with utmost respect, this malevolent god has appeared. It must be eliminated, so that the true benevolent god may be found.” The Emperor ordered that those going to sea be equipped with tools to capture the great fish, and to carry mechanical crossbows to shoot any that appeared.
From Langya, they sailed northward to Rongcheng Mountain, but did not encounter any great fish. When they reached Zhi, they finally found one, and it was killed by the Emperor’s archers. They then continued westward along the coast.
Upon arriving at Pingyuan Jin, the Emperor fell ill. He despised the word “death” and forbade his ministers from mentioning it. As his condition worsened, he wrote a sealed letter to his son, Crown Prince Fusu, instructing him to return to Xianyang to attend to the funeral and oversee the burial. The letter was sealed, placed in the care of the Governor of the Eastern Provinces, Zhao Gao, but was not delivered to any messenger. On the seventh day of the month Bing Yin, the Emperor passed away at Shachiu Plateau.
Chancellor Li Si feared that the princes might seize the opportunity to cause unrest, so he kept the death of the Emperor a secret, withholding any announcement of the royal funeral. The Emperor’s body was placed in a specially designed, airtight, but ventilated cart, attended by eunuchs who had once enjoyed the Emperor’s favor. At each stop, food was provided, and officials continued to present matters to the Emperor as if he were still alive. The eunuchs would relay the Emperor’s decrees while inside the cart. Only Hu Hai, Zhao Gao, and a handful of favored eunuchs knew of the Emperor’s death. Zhao Gao, who had once taught Hu Hai to write and enforce legal codes, enjoyed the young prince’s favor. Zhao Gao, Hu Hai, and Li Si secretly conspired to tamper with the sealed letter that had been given to Crown Prince Fusu, forging a decree that declared Hu Hai as the new heir. They also wrote false letters accusing Fusu and General Meng Tian of treason, commanding them to commit suicide. These events were later chronicled in the “Biographies of Li Si.”
As they journeyed from Jingxing to Jiuyuan, the heat of summer caused the body of the deceased Emperor to emit a foul odor. To mask the stench, they ordered the attendants to place a stone of pungent, fishy-smelling salted fish inside the cart, so that the people could not distinguish between the odor of decay and the smell of the fish.
They continued their journey back to Xianyang, where an official mourning announcement was made, and Hu Hai ascended the throne as the Second Emperor. In September, the Emperor was laid to rest at Mount Li.
Upon ascending to the throne, the First Emperor had commissioned extensive work to divert and govern the waters around Mount Li. After unifying the empire, he summoned over 700,000 laborers from across the realm to dig the tomb, creating three layers of reservoirs as deep as the springs, filling the tomb with precious objects, and sealing it with mechanisms designed to kill intruders. The tomb was constructed with such ingenuity that it replicated rivers, mountains, and the stars, using mercury to mimic the great rivers and lakes, and the ceiling was adorned with celestial maps. A torch made from the oil of giant salamanders was designed to burn for centuries.
The Second Emperor ordered that all concubines of the late Emperor who had no children be put to death, along with numerous others who were buried with him. After the tomb was completed, there were rumors that the artisans had leaked information about the treasure hidden inside. The final rites were held, the treasures sealed away, and the tomb was shut. All of the artisans were sealed inside, never to emerge. The grave was planted with trees and shrubs, making it resemble a mountain when viewed from the outside.
In the first year of Emperor Er’s reign (209 BCE), the Emperor was 21 years old, and Zhao Gao held the position of Langzhong Ling, wielding immense power in the court. The Emperor issued an imperial decree to increase the number of livestock used for sacrifices at the Qin Shi Huang’s temple and to enhance the rituals for mountain and river sacrifices. He also ordered the ministers to discuss and honor the temple title of Qin Shi Huang. The ministers bowed their heads and said, “In ancient times, the ancestral temples of the emperor were seven in number, to honor the seven generations of ancestors. The feudal lords had five temples, and the ministers three. The temple of Qin Shi Huang is unparalleled in greatness, and even for generations to come, it cannot be destroyed. The people across the land must contribute offerings and taxes, including livestock for sacrifices. The rituals must be complete, and nothing higher can be established. The ancestral temples of former kings are located in Xiyong and Xianyang. According to tradition, the emperor should hold the sacrificial wine in his own hands, a wine that has been brewed multiple times and is rich in quality, to honor the temple of Qin Shi Huang. Temples from the time of Xiang Gong and onwards have been destroyed, and seven temples have been built in total. Ministers shall offer their sacrifices according to protocol and elevate the temple of Qin Shi Huang as the temple of the emperor’s founding ancestor.” The Emperor continued to refer to himself as ‘Zhen’ (I) instead of taking the title of ‘Emperor Ancestor.’
Emperor Er spoke privately with Zhao Gao: “I am young and have just ascended to the throne; the people are not yet loyal. My predecessor, the First Emperor, toured the various regions to demonstrate his strength and command, which subdued the entire realm. Now, if I remain in the palace without traveling, people will think I am incapable and unable to rule the world.” In the spring, Emperor Er embarked on a tour eastward to inspect the counties, with Li Si accompanying him. They reached Mount Jieshi, traveled along the coastline to Kuaiji, and inscribed their names on the stone stele set up by the First Emperor, adding the names of accompanying ministers to further elevate the achievements and virtues of the late emperor.
The Emperor said, “The inscriptions on the stone monuments were all created by the First Emperor. Now that I have inherited the title of emperor, yet the inscriptions do not refer to him as the First Emperor. In future ages, these records might be seen as belonging to later generations, and thus the great deeds of the First Emperor will not be properly honored.” Chancellor Li Si, Minister Feng Quji, and Chief Minister De Mao, risking their lives, advised: “We propose that the edict be fully inscribed on the stone monuments, so that it may be understood. We beg for your permission.” The Emperor agreed and instructed that the edicts be inscribed.
Afterward, the Emperor traveled to Liaodong and then returned.
At this point, Emperor Er, following Zhao Gao’s advice, issued a decree. He secretly discussed with Zhao Gao, saying, “The ministers are not loyal, the officials are still powerful, and the princes will surely challenge my authority. What should I do about this?” Zhao Gao responded, “I had planned to say this but did not dare. The ministers who served the late emperor were noble families with long histories, who established great legacies that were passed down for generations. Now, I, Zhao Gao, born of humble origin, am fortunate to have been elevated by your Majesty, managing court affairs. The ministers may appear to obey, but in their hearts, they are discontent. Now that the emperor is on a tour, why not use this opportunity to root out those who are guilty among the county and district officers, and execute them? This will enhance the emperor’s authority across the empire and rid him of those he dislikes. At present, governance should rely on military strength rather than civil measures. Your Majesty should act decisively, without hesitation, and the ministers will have no time to plot against you. A wise ruler brings forward the neglected, elevates the humble, and unites the country.” Emperor Er responded, “Good!”
Thus, the Emperor executed ministers and princes, fabricating charges and arresting even minor court officials such as Zhonglang, Wailang, and Sanlang. No one was spared, and six princes were killed in Du County. The three brothers of Prince Jiang, who had been imprisoned in the inner palace, were sentenced for their crimes. The Emperor sent an emissary to tell them, “You have not fulfilled your duties as ministers and will be put to death. The officers have come to carry out the sentence.” Prince Jiang replied, “As for palace rituals, I have always followed the guidance of the ceremonial officers; in matters of court protocol, I have never been disrespectful; I have never erred in my responses when commanded. How can I be accused of not fulfilling my duties? Please, let me know my crimes before I die.” The emissary responded, “I am only carrying out orders and cannot discuss the matter further.” Prince Jiang shouted loudly to the heavens, “Heaven! I am innocent!” The three brothers, weeping, drew their swords and committed suicide. The royal family was shaken, and the ministers were struck with fear and anxiety. Ministers who spoke out were accused of slander, while high officials groveled to keep their positions. The people were terrified.
In April, Emperor Er returned to Xianyang and said, “The First Emperor built the Epang Palace because the Xianyang court was too small, but the construction of the main halls was never completed. After the First Emperor’s death, construction was halted, and workers were reassigned to build his tomb at Lishan. With the completion of the tomb, the work on the Epang Palace was abandoned, which reflects the shortcomings of the First Emperor’s administration.” He then ordered the continuation of the construction of the Epang Palace. To pacify foreign tribes, he followed the policies of the First Emperor and called up 50,000 strong soldiers to guard Xianyang. He issued orders for archery training and the maintenance of animals for the palace’s entertainment. The soldiers, horses, and animals required vast amounts of grain, and the grain reserves in Xianyang were insufficient. Therefore, he ordered the requisition of grain and fodder from surrounding counties, with the transporters required to bring their own provisions. The people within a 400-li radius of Xianyang were forbidden from consuming this grain. The law was enforced even more harshly.
In July, Chen Sheng and others, in the land of the former Chu Kingdom, revolted, founding a state called “Zhang Chu,” meaning “the great Chu.” Chen Sheng declared himself King of Chu and resided in Chen County. He sent generals to seize land. In the counties of Shandong, east of Mount Xiaoshan and Hangu Pass, young men who had suffered under Qin’s officials killed their local magistrates, district officers, and county clerks in revolt, supporting Chen Sheng. They successively crowned local kings and gathered forces to march westward under the banner of “overthrowing the Qin.” The number of rebels was so great it was beyond counting. A messenger who relayed the news of the rebellion in Shandong returned and reported the situation to Emperor Er. Enraged, Emperor Er handed the messenger over to the responsible officials for processing. When the second messenger returned, the Emperor asked about the situation. The messenger replied, “They are merely a group of bandits. The magistrates and district officers are already chasing them, and they have all been captured. It’s not worth worrying about.” The Emperor was pleased. Meanwhile, military leaders declared themselves kings: Zhao Wang, Wei Ji as King of Wei, Tian Dan as King of Qi, and Pei Gong in Pei County led a rebellion. Xiang Liang rose in Kuaiji.
In the second year (208 BCE), during the winter, Chen Sheng sent his generals, including Zhou Zhang, westward to the area of Xishui with an army of several hundred thousand men. The Second Emperor was greatly shocked and convened a council with his ministers, asking, “What should we do?” The Minister of the Left, Zhang Han, responded, “The bandits are already here, with overwhelming numbers and strength. It is too late to mobilize troops from the nearby counties. However, there are many laborers at Mount Li, and if we pardon them and arm them, they could help us counter the rebels.” Consequently, the Second Emperor issued a general amnesty, sending Zhang Han to lead the army to defeat Zhou Zhang’s forces. Zhou Zhang fled and was killed at Caoyang. The Emperor then sent further reinforcements, including the Chancellor Sima Xin and General Dong Yi, to assist Zhang Han in suppressing the uprising. They killed Chen Sheng at Chengfu, defeated Xiang Liang at Dingtao, and killed Wei Jiu at Linji. With the main commanders of the uprising in Chu having been eliminated, Zhang Han crossed the Yellow River northward and laid siege to Ju Lu, where he attacked King Zhao Xie and his allies.
Zhao Gao, the Emperor’s chief advisor, urged the Second Emperor, saying, “The First Emperor ruled for many years, and thus the ministers did not dare to act out of line or speak against him. But now that Your Majesty is young and newly ascended to the throne, how can you discuss such great matters in the court with the officials? If you make a mistake, it will only expose your weaknesses. The title ‘I’ (Zhen) carries the meaning of being heard by none, a symbol of authority and control.” The Second Emperor, following this advice, withdrew deeper into the imperial palace, consulting only with Zhao Gao on matters of governance. From then on, court officials rarely had the opportunity to meet the Emperor, and the number of uprisings increased. The army of Guanzhong, constantly summoned to the east to suppress rebels, remained on constant alert.
Chancellor Feng Qiji, Left Chancellor Li Si, and General Feng Jie remonstrated, saying, “Rebellions are spreading throughout the eastern provinces, and while many bandits have been killed by the imperial army, peace is still not achieved. The rebels’ grievances stem from harsh border duties, excessive labor, and heavy taxes. We implore the Emperor to halt the construction of the Epang Palace and ease the burdens of border service and forced labor.” The Second Emperor responded, “I have heard from Han Zi that ‘Emperors Yao and Shun used unrefined oak for beams, built roofs with reeds without trimming them, and ate from earthenware bowls and drank from clay pots. Even the lowest servant would not be treated more austerely than this. Emperor Yu dredged the Longmen Gorge, managed the Yellow River, and led the water to the sea, all with the tools of slaves. Why then, would we seek to emulate such sacrifices? I sit upon the throne with the power of ten thousand chariots, but I have no such grandeur. I will create a chariot of a thousand, and an entourage of ten thousand, so that the actual governance will match my title.’ The First Emperor came from the feudal lords, unified the kingdom, pacified the four corners, and built palaces to mark his success. You have seen how the First Emperor’s achievements have been set in motion. Now, after two years of my reign, banditry has spread, and you cannot stop it. Yet you wish to halt the projects initiated by my father? To do so would be to fail to repay the First Emperor and neglect my own duties. Why, then, should you remain in your positions?”
Zhao Gao, realizing the danger, secretly conspired with his allies to remove the ministers Feng Qiji, Li Si, and Feng Jie. They were arrested and interrogated for other alleged crimes. Feng Qiji and Feng Jie, unable to tolerate the dishonor, took their own lives. Li Si was imprisoned and tortured.
In the third year (207 BCE), Zhang Han and his forces laid siege to Ju Lu. General Xiang Yu of Chu led a rescue mission to save Ju Lu. That winter, Zhao Gao assumed the role of Chancellor and executed Li Si. Throughout the summer, Zhang Han and his army suffered multiple defeats, and the Second Emperor sent messengers to reprimand him. Fearing the Emperor’s wrath, Zhang Han sent Sima Xin to report back to the capital, but Zhao Gao refused to meet with or trust him. In fear, Sima Xin fled, but was pursued by Zhao Gao’s agents and narrowly escaped. He met with Zhang Han and warned him, “In the court, Zhao Gao is in power. Whether you succeed or fail, you will be blamed and killed.”
At the same time, Xiang Yu intensified his attacks on the Qin forces, capturing Wang Li. Zhang Han and his troops eventually surrendered to the various lords. On the day of Ji Hai in August, Zhao Gao, fearing that the court might rebel, devised a plan to test the loyalty of the officials. He brought in a deer and presented it to the Emperor, claiming it was a horse. The Emperor, laughing, corrected him, saying, “Chancellor, you are mistaken. This is clearly a deer.” When he questioned the court ministers, some were silent, while others, either out of fear or to please Zhao Gao, agreed that it was a horse. Zhao Gao then used this to falsely accuse those who claimed it was a deer, further consolidating his power.
The ministers, now terrified of Zhao Gao, continued to endure his tyrannical rule. Zhao Gao had previously dismissed the Eastern bandits as insignificant, but with the fall of Ju Lu and Xiang Yu’s advances, the Qin army suffered repeated setbacks. The various states, including Yan, Zhao, Qi, Chu, Han, and Wei, declared their independence and turned against the Qin, marching west to join the rebel forces. The Pei King led a large army to capture Wuguan and secretly made contact with Zhao Gao. Fearing the Emperor’s anger, Zhao Gao pretended to be ill to avoid meeting with him.
One night, the Second Emperor had a dream in which a white tiger attacked his horse. He killed the tiger, but was left uneasy, so he sought advice from a dream interpreter. The interpreter revealed that the “Water God of Jing River” was behind the disturbance. The Emperor, now deeply troubled, performed a ritual and had four white horses thrown into the river as a sacrifice. Meanwhile, the rebellion continued to spread.
Zhao Gao, desperate to preserve his power, conspired further with his son-in-law Yan Le, the magistrate of Xianyang, and his brother Zhao Cheng. They plotted to frame the Emperor for treason, intending to replace him with Prince Ying. The scheming Zhao Gao secretly ordered Yan Le to mobilize officials and soldiers, kidnapping his mother and using her as leverage to ensure Yan Le’s compliance. In an attempt to maintain his position, the Second Emperor appealed for mercy, offering to become a commoner, but Zhao Gao refused.
In the end, with the rebellion closing in and the Emperor facing certain death, Zhao Gao’s agents stormed the palace, killing the Second Emperor.
Yan Le returned and reported to Zhao Gao, who then summoned all the ministers and princes to inform them of the Second Emperor’s death. Zhao Gao said, “The Qin State was originally a feudal state. It was under the rule of the First Emperor that it unified the world and thus declared itself an empire. Now, the six former kingdoms have each declared themselves as independent, and the Qin Empire’s territory continues to shrink. It is inappropriate to continue calling ourselves ‘Emperor’ under these circumstances. We should return to the title of ‘King,’ as in the past.” Zhao Gao then installed the Second Emperor’s elder brother’s son, Ying, as the King of Qin. The Second Emperor was buried in the Southern Du and the Yichun Garden, following the funeral rites for a commoner. The new King, Ziying, fasted for five days and prepared to offer sacrifices to the ancestors in the royal ancestral temple, while receiving the royal seal and imperial regalia.
After five days of fasting, Ziying, along with his two sons, discussed the situation. He said, “Chancellor Zhao Gao killed the Second Emperor in the Wangyi Palace, and now, fearing retribution from the ministers, he is pretending to have acted according to the law in order to install me as king. I have heard that Zhao Gao has secretly conspired with the Kingdom of Chu to eliminate the Qin royal family and then crown himself as king in Guanzhong. Now, he is forcing me to fast and attend the ancestral temple, clearly hoping to kill me there. I will feign illness and refuse to go. Once he comes himself, I will take the opportunity to kill him.” Zhao Gao sent several emissaries to summon Ziying, but Ziying refused to comply. Eventually, Zhao Gao himself arrived to invite Ziying, saying, “This is a matter of national importance; why does the King refuse to attend?” Ziying then ordered Zhao Gao’s death, slaughtering Zhao Gao’s entire family and displaying their bodies in Xianyang. Ziying ruled as King of Qin for forty-six days. Soon after, the Chu general, Liu Bang, also known as the Pei King, defeated the Qin army at Wuguan and marched on to Baxian. He sent envoys to offer terms to Ziying. Ziying, dressed in a white chariot and white horses, wearing the imperial seal, surrendered at the Zhi Dao Pavilion. Liu Bang then entered Xianyang, sealed the palace and treasury, and returned to Baxian to regroup.
More than a month later, armies from various other states arrived, and Xiang Yu, the leader of the anti-Qin alliance, executed Ziying and all members of the Qin royal family. Xianyang was slaughtered, the palaces were burned, and palace women were taken as prisoners. The treasures and riches of the Qin imperial palace were divided among the lords. After the fall of the Qin dynasty, the former Qin territory was divided into three regions, each ruled by a king: King Yong, King Sai, and King Zhai, collectively known as the Three Qins. Xiang Yu was declared the “Hegemon-King of Western Chu” and presided over the division of the empire, bestowing titles of nobility on the lords. Thus, the Qin Dynasty came to an end. Five years later, the land was unified under the Han.
The Grand Historian Sima Qian writes: The ancestors of the Qin, led by Bo Yi, had served in the reigns of Emperor Yao and Emperor Shun, establishing great merit and receiving land as a reward, taking the surname Ying. However, during the Xia and Shang dynasties, the Qin family declined. When the Zhou dynasty began to weaken, the Qin state rose, building strongholds on the western frontier. From the reign of Duke Mu of Qin, the state gradually absorbed the other feudal lords, eventually establishing the rule of the First Emperor. The First Emperor believed that his achievements surpassed those of the Five Emperors, and the land he controlled far exceeded that of the Three Kings. In his eyes, comparing his reign to the past was a disgrace. Jia Sheng’s remarks on this matter are most insightful. He stated, “The Qin Empire conquered the other states, establishing more than thirty commanderies in the eastern provinces. It fortified key passes, controlled strategic terrain, and built weapons to defend these regions. Yet, when Chen Sheng rose with only a few hundred disbanded soldiers, he rallied the people, fighting with simple tools such as hoes and wooden clubs. Though without provisions, they could always find food in the villages, and they swiftly dominated the land, leaving no one able to stop them. The Qin state, with its formidable defenses, could not protect its borders. Passes and bridges were no longer sealed, and even its long spears and crossbows could not defend its walls. The Chu army soon penetrated deep into the territory, and at the Battle of Hongmen, they encountered almost no resistance. The entire region of Shandong erupted in chaos, and the lords rose in rebellion, each declaring themselves king.”
Zhao Gao saw this as an opportunity and led the Qin army eastward, eventually striking deals with the lords, scheming against his own emperor. This further illustrates the lack of trust in the ministers. Ziying, upon ascending the throne, failed to realize the gravity of the situation. Had he been a more capable ruler, even with mediocre advisors, he might have been able to preserve the Qin territory despite the chaos in Shandong. The sacrifices in the ancestral temple would have continued, and the Qin might have held on longer.
The Qin State was naturally fortified by mountains and rivers, offering strong defense positions. From Duke Mu’s reign onward, and through the successive rulers of Qin, the state frequently outshone other feudal lords. Was this due to their wisdom and brilliance? No, it was the strategic advantage of their geographical position. Furthermore, the states united to attack Qin, and during this time, many capable generals and wise ministers came together. However, the Qin’s formidable defenses kept them at bay. The Qin lured the other states into their territory, where the strategic passes were opened, and the allied forces of Shandong were soundly defeated. Was this due to a lack of bravery, strength, or intelligence? No, it was simply the adverse terrain and unfavorable geography.
The Qin annexed small cities into large ones, stationed troops at key passes, and built strongholds. However, their reluctance to engage in battle left them vulnerable when the lords, whose alliances were based on mutual interest rather than virtue, turned against them. The lords had little true cohesion, and their subordinates lacked loyalty. Though they claimed to overthrow the Qin, their true intention was to secure their own power. When they saw how difficult it was to invade Qin, they withdrew. If they had focused on stabilizing their own lands, allowing the people to recover, and patiently waiting for Qin’s decline, they could have easily unified the world under their rule. Yet, despite their high status and the wealth they possessed, they too were ultimately captured, all because their strategy for preventing downfall was flawed.
The King of Qin, satisfied with his personal achievements, did not seek counsel from others, persisting in his errors without change. The Second Emperor inherited his father’s faults, failing to reform and instead worsening the situation with cruelty and harshness, which only intensified the calamities. Ziying, isolated and without support, found himself in a perilous position, weak and without assistance, while the three successive rulers all lived in ignorance, unable to recognize their errors. The fall of the Qin Dynasty—was it not inevitable? At this time, there were indeed individuals with profound foresight who understood the changes in circumstances, but they dared not speak out, as the political atmosphere in the Qin court was fraught with taboos and strict prohibitions. Any candid advice was met with swift execution before it could be fully expressed. As a result, the people of the realm could only listen in silence, standing on their toes with closed mouths, too fearful to speak. The three rulers, lost in their misguided paths, were blind to the warnings, while loyal ministers and wise advisers dared not offer counsel. The realm had already descended into chaos, and yet the emperor remained unaware. Was this not tragic?
The former kings understood that blocking communication would harm the state, which is why they appointed public officials, ministers, and scholars to reform the laws and establish punishments, bringing order to the land. When the state was strong, the rulers prohibited cruelty and punished rebellion, thereby maintaining obedience throughout the kingdom. In times of weakness, the five hegemons would unite under the emperor to quell unrest, and the vassals would comply. Even when territory was reduced, the kingdom could defend itself internally and find allies externally, preserving its national integrity. The Zhou Dynasty, with its well-ordered system of five noble ranks—dukes, marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons—endured for over a thousand years due to its alignment with the fundamental principles of governance. In contrast, the Qin Dynasty lost its way in both method and purpose, which led to its downfall. From this, we can see how far apart stability and ruin truly are. As the saying goes, “Those who forget past lessons are doomed to repeat them.” Therefore, a wise ruler must study the histories of ancient times, compare them to contemporary circumstances, and test his policies through practice, so that he can discern the cycles of prosperity and decline, make strategic decisions with clarity, and ensure the long-lasting stability of the state.
When King Xiao of Qin occupied the strategic and fortified locations of Mount Xian and the Hangu Pass, and controlled the land of Yongzhou, he and his ministers firmly defended their borders, eyeing the Zhou royal house with the intention of seizing power. With ambitions to sweep across the world and dominate the known lands, Xiao was assisted by the sage Shang Yang, who established legal systems, promoted agriculture and textiles, and improved military weaponry and defense systems. Meanwhile, Shang Yang fostered alliances through diplomatic maneuvering, encouraging infighting among the other lords, so that the Qin state gained land beyond the Western River with minimal effort.
After King Xiao’s death, his successors, King Hui and King Wu, inherited his legacy and continued his policies. They expanded Qin’s territories by conquering Hanzhong to the south, the Bashu region to the west, and fertile lands to the east, occupying key strategic counties. The other states, fearing Qin’s growing power, convened to discuss weakening the Qin. They offered precious treasures, rare goods, and fertile lands to recruit the wisest men from around the world and form the “Vertical Alliance” (Hezong), binding their forces together. At this time, notable figures from various states such as Mengchang Jun from Qi, Pingyuan Jun from Zhao, Chunshen Jun from Chu, and Xinling Jun from Wei, each wise, loyal, and benevolent, formed this alliance to counter the Qin. They were supported by strategists like Ning Yue, Xu Shang, Su Qin, and Du He, and military commanders like Wu Qi, Sun Bin, and Zhao She, who led their combined forces. With an army numbering in the hundreds of thousands, they attacked the Hangu Pass, planning to crush Qin.
However, the Qin opened their gates to let the enemy inside, and the armies of the nine states, despite their vast numbers, retreated in defeat, unwilling to advance. The Qin suffered no losses in the battle, not even a single arrow or broken spear, while the allied forces were exhausted and disheartened. Thus, the alliance fragmented, and the treaty was broken. In their desperation, the states scrambled to cede territories to appease Qin, which used this opportunity to assert its dominance, crushing its enemies and killing millions, turning the land into a sea of blood. In the wake of this victory, the Qin state gained control over the entire realm, cutting down the lands of the vassal states, and forcing both powerful and weak kingdoms to submit to its rule. The throne passed to King Xiao Wen and King Zhuangxiang, though their reigns were short and uneventful.
When Qin Shi Huang ascended the throne, he inherited the achievements of six generations before him. He wielded supreme power, conquering Eastern Zhou, Western Zhou, and the other vassals, and proclaimed himself Emperor. He unified the world under his rule, employing harsh punishments to maintain control. His reign struck fear across the seas. He annexed the land of the Baiyue to the south, establishing the new prefectures of Guilin and Xiang. The leaders of Baiyue, humbled and submissive, pledged their loyalty to the Qin officials. Qin Shi Huang also sent General Meng Tian to the north to build the Great Wall, securing the frontier and forcing the Xiongnu to retreat over seven hundred miles, ensuring they no longer dared to invade. At the same time, the people of the six states dared not retaliate.
He abandoned the former kings’ methods of governance, burning books and enforcing a policy of intellectual suppression. He demolished ancient cities, executed prominent intellectuals, and confiscated all weapons, melting them down to create twelve bronze statues in order to weaken the people’s ability to resist. He then fortified the region of Mount Hua and used the Yellow River as a natural moat, constructing an impenetrable barrier. With exceptional generals, formidable archers, and loyal ministers guarding key passes, no one could challenge his power. Under these conditions, the Qin Dynasty appeared unassailable.
However, after Qin Shi Huang’s death, his legacy still cast a long shadow over distant regions with different customs. Chen Sheng, a poor peasant from a humble background, armed only with tools like broken pottery and rope, rallied a small band of exhausted and demoralized soldiers. Without the strategic acumen of Confucius or Mozi, nor the wealth of prominent merchants, Chen’s forces were no more than a handful. Yet, his cause resonated with the people. Armed with makeshift weapons, they rallied around him, swelling in number as they marched. The heroes of Shandong rose up together, and soon, the Qin royal family was overthrown.
The Qin Empire, at its height, had not diminished or weakened; the land of Yongzhou, the formidable Mount Xiaoshan, and the strategic passes of Hangu remained as steadfast as ever. Chen She’s position, however, was far inferior to the exalted rulers of states such as Qi, Chu, Yan, Zhao, Han, Wei, Song, Wei, and Zhongshan. His humble tools—a hoe and a wooden staff—were no match for the sharp halberds and long spears wielded by the armies of the noble lords. His exiled followers, stationed at the borders, were far less powerful than the armies of the Nine States. His strategies in warfare and governance lacked the depth and foresight of the advisors of the Six Kingdoms. Yet, despite these disparities, success and failure are not always dictated by such differences, and the outcomes were entirely opposite. If the states of Shandong had compared themselves to Chen She in terms of power and influence, the differences would have been strikingly clear. Nevertheless, Qin, despite its small territory in Yongzhou, held the power of lords commanding a thousand war chariots, conquered eight states, and unified the entire realm, forcing even the equal-status lords of the Six States to bow and submit, a situation that lasted over a century. But who would have thought that, after Qin unified the world and claimed it as its own, with Mount Xiaoshan and Hangu Pass as its imperial palaces, a mere commoner could rise in rebellion and bring about the fall of the Qin Dynasty, destroying its ancestral temples and causing the death of emperors and princes, leaving the empire in disgrace? What was the reason for this downfall? It was the failure to enact benevolent governance. The methods for seizing power are not the same as those for retaining it.
When Qin unified the world, it absorbed the various lords, and the emperor ascended to the throne, providing for the people across the four seas. The intellectuals and scholars of the world were drawn to his rule. Why was this so? The answer lies in the fact that for a long time, no emperor had unified the realm. After the Zhou royal family weakened and the Five Hegemons passed, the emperor’s decrees could no longer be enforced, and the lords waged wars against each other. The strong oppressed the weak, the populous dominated the few, and battles raged endlessly, wearing out both the military and the people. Now, with the Qin Emperor ruling from the south, the people saw the return of a legitimate ruler. The common folk, suffering under hardship, looked to him for protection and survival. At this point, it was crucial for the emperor to secure his authority and stabilize the realm. This was the key to whether the empire would prosper or fall.
The Qin King, driven by greed and petty ambition, sought to implement only his personal wisdom. He distrusted loyal ministers, shunned the common people, and rejected benevolent governance in favor of consolidating personal power. He burned ancient texts, implemented draconian laws, prioritized cunning and power over virtue, and ruled through cruelty and oppression. Such methods of conquest and consolidation were not suitable for maintaining power. The strategies for seizing and holding the realm cannot be the same.
Had the Qin King been more mindful of ancient precedents, following the paths of the Shang and Zhou dynasties, and implemented policies in line with justice and virtue, future rulers, even if given to excess and luxury, would not have faced the same fate of ruin. The legacies of ancient rulers like Emperor Yao, Emperor Shun, King Wen of Zhou, and King Wu of Zhou endured because their governance was founded on virtue and benevolence, not on deceit and excessive punishment.
Upon the ascent of Qin’s second emperor, the people eagerly awaited his policies. Those suffering from cold would have been content with the simplest of garments, and the hungry would have found solace in the humblest of food. The common people, calling out in distress, were the very foundation of the new emperor’s rule. This illustrates the susceptibility of the suffering populace to benevolent governance. If the second emperor had exhibited the virtues of a typical monarch—appointing wise and loyal ministers, working in unison with them for the good of the realm, correcting the errors of his predecessor, granting land to the people, honoring the descendants of loyal ministers, and restoring justice—he could have achieved peace and prosperity. However, the second emperor failed to do so. Instead of pursuing policies of fairness, he indulged in cruelty even greater than that of his predecessor. He rebuilt the extravagant Efang Palace, introduced harsher laws, executed more people, and burdened the people with excessive taxes and oppressive duties. The state was overwhelmed, and the suffering of the people reached new extremes, with no attempt made by the emperor to offer relief. As a result, corruption and deceit flourished, and rebellion brewed. The empire descended into chaos, and the people, from the highest officials to the common folk, were filled with fear, insecurity, and unrest. This made the situation ripe for revolt.
Thus, Chen She’s rebellion was not due to his wisdom, nor did he rely on the virtuous example of rulers like Shang Tang or King Wu of Zhou. He did not have the noble status of high officials. However, he called upon the people in the marshes, and the entire nation responded, for the people were desperate. Ancient sages understood the importance of foresight, knowing that the stability of a kingdom depends on the well-being and peace of its people. A kingdom that serves the people, and ensures their peace, will avoid rebellion even in the face of treacherous ministers. This was the downfall of the second emperor.
When Duke Xiang ascended the throne, he ruled for twelve years and began the construction of the Western Shrine, where he was later buried at Xichui. He fathered Duke Wen.
Duke Wen ascended the throne and resided in the Western Palace. He ruled for fifty years and was also buried at Xichui. He fathered Duke Jing.
Duke Jing died without ascending the throne. He fathered Duke Xian.
Duke Xian reigned for twelve years. He resided in Xixin Yi and, upon his death, was buried in Yaxian. He had sons: Duke Wu, Duke De, and Chuzi.
Chuzi ruled for six years, residing in Xiling. His three senior concubines—Buji, Weilei, and Chenfu—led a group of assassins who killed Chuzi in Biyan. He was buried in Yaxian. Duke Wu ascended the throne.
Duke Wu ruled for twenty years. He resided in Pingyang’s Fengtang Palace and was buried in the southeast of Xuanyangju. The three senior concubines were duly punished. Duke De succeeded him.
Duke De reigned for two years, residing in Yongyi’s Dazheng Palace. He fathered Duke Xuan, Duke Cheng, and Duke Miao, and was buried in Yangdi. He began observing the summer solstice to ward off heat and pestilence.
Duke Xuan reigned for twelve years, residing in Yang Palace, and was buried in Yangdi. He began recording intercalary months.
Duke Cheng ruled for four years. He resided in the palace of Yongyi and was buried in Yangdi. During his reign, the state of Qi attacked the Mountain Rong and Gushu tribes.
Duke Miao ruled for thirty-nine years, during which the Zhou emperor congratulated him on his hegemony. He was buried in Yongyi. Duke Miao once learned from the palace guards. He fathered Duke Kang.
Duke Kang reigned for twelve years, residing in the high court of Yongyi and buried in Qu She. He fathered Duke Gong.
Duke Gong ruled for five years, residing in the high court of Yongyi and buried south of Duke Kang. He fathered Duke Huan.
Duke Huan reigned for twenty-seven years, residing in the Great Court of Yongyi and buried to the north of Yili Qiu. He fathered Duke Jing.
Duke Jing reigned for forty years, residing in the high court of Yongyi and buried south of Qiuli. He fathered Duke Bi.
Duke Bi ruled for thirty-six years and was buried north of Cheli. He fathered Duke Yi.
Duke Yi never ascended the throne. He died and was buried at Zuogong. He fathered Duke Hui.
Duke Hui reigned for ten years and was buried at Cheli. He fathered Duke Dao.
Duke Dao reigned for fifteen years and was buried west of Duke Xi. He built the city walls of Yongyi. He fathered Duke Ci Gong.
Duke Ci Gong ruled for twenty-four years and was buried at Ruli. He fathered Dukes Zao and Huai. In his tenth year, a comet appeared.
Duke Zao reigned for fourteen years, residing at Shou Court, and was buried south of Duke Dao. In his first year, a comet appeared.
Duke Huai returned from the state of Jin and ruled for four years. He was buried at Liyu and fathered Duke Ling. The ministers surrounded Duke Huai, who then took his own life.
Duke Su Ling, son of Duke Zhao, resided in Jingyang and reigned for ten years. He was buried west of Duke Dao and fathered Duke Jian.
Duke Jian returned from Jin and ruled for fifteen years. He was buried west of Duke Xi. He fathered Duke Hui. In the seventh year of his reign, officials began wearing swords.
Duke Hui reigned for thirteen years and was buried at Lingyu. He fathered Duke Chu.
Duke Chu reigned for two years before committing suicide. He was buried in Yongyi.
Duke Xian reigned for twenty-three years and was buried at Xiao Yu. He fathered Duke Xiao.
Duke Xiao reigned for twenty-four years and was buried at Di Yu. He fathered King Huiwen. In the thirteenth year of his reign, he began the construction of the capital at Xianyang.
King Huiwen reigned for twenty-seven years and was buried at Gongling. He fathered King Daowu.
King Daowu reigned for four years and was buried at Yongling.
King Zhao Xiang reigned for fifty-six years and was buried at Zhiyang. He fathered King Xiaowen.
King Xiaowen reigned for one year and was buried at Shouling. He fathered King Zhuangxiang.
King Zhuangxiang reigned for three years and was buried at Zhiyang. He fathered Emperor Shi, and Lü Buwei served as Chancellor.
In the seventh year of Duke Xian’s reign (378 BC), markets were established. In the tenth year (375 BC), census registration was carried out, with five households grouped together.
In the sixteenth year of Duke Xiao’s reign (346 BC), peach and plum trees blossomed in winter.
King Huiwen ascended the throne at the age of nineteen. In his second year (336 BC), he introduced coinage. A newborn child prophesied, “The state of Qin will soon become a kingdom.”
King Daowu ascended the throne at the age of nineteen. In his third year (309 BC), the Wei River turned red for three days.
King Zhao Xiang ascended the throne at the age of nineteen. In his fourth year (304 BC), he began the expansion of the well-field system.
King Xiaowen ascended the throne at the age of fifty-three.
King Zhuangxiang ascended the throne at the age of thirty-two. In his second year (248 BC), he seized the Taiyuan region. In the first year of his reign (249 BC), he declared a general amnesty, honored the achievements of past kings, extended kindness, and showed great favor to his family. The Eastern Zhou allied with the other states to attack Qin, but Qin dispatched Chancellor Lü Buwei to defeat them, bringing the Eastern Zhou entirely under Qin’s control. Qin continued the ancestral rituals of the Eastern Zhou, granting the people of Yangren a land to support their rulers’ sacrifices.
Emperor Shi reigned for thirty-seven years and was buried in Liyu. He fathered the second emperor.
The second emperor reigned for three years and was buried at Yichun Garden. Zhao Gao was appointed as Chancellor, and he was granted the title of Anwu Marquis. The second emperor ascended the throne at the age of twelve.
The total reign from King Xiang of Qin to the second emperor was six hundred and ten years.
In the 17th year of Emperor Han Xiaoming’s reign (74 AD), on October 15th, a day marked as Yichou, Emperor Xiaoming inquired of Ban Gu about the successes and failures of Jia Yi and Sima Qian’s analysis of the fall of the Second Qin Emperor and the loss of the empire. Ban Gu responded that the destiny of the Zhou Dynasty had already passed. Zhou belonged to the element of wood, while Han represented fire, as wood generates fire—meaning Zhou was the mother to the Han, and a son cannot directly succeed the mother. Thus, the benevolence of the Han Dynasty could not immediately replace the Zhou. Meanwhile, the Qin Dynasty came at the cusp between the wood and fire elements, holding the imperial position. Emperor Shi Huang, Ying Zheng, was ruthless and cruel, yet ascended to the position of feudal lord at the age of thirteen, later unifying the world. He indulged in reckless behaviors but also supported his family and kin. Over thirty-seven years, he waged wars, established laws and decrees, leaving a legacy for future emperors. This was likely due to the power he acquired through divine favor, receiving the River Diagram from the river god, and harnessing the energy of the Wolf Star and Fox Star, which symbolized the emperor’s dominance in archery, and the energies of the Can Star and Faz Star to annihilate his rivals, until he declared himself the First Emperor.
After the death of Qin Shi Huang, Hu Hai proved to be exceedingly foolish. The construction of the Lishan tomb was not completed, and he ordered the rebuilding of the Epang Palace to fulfill his father’s plan. He also uttered lamentable words: “For one who holds the world, the most precious thing is the freedom to do as one pleases, but the ministers are trying to abandon the intentions of the late emperor,” and executed Li Si and Feng Qiji, appointing Zhao Gao instead. These words of the second emperor are truly sorrowful! He had a human head but made the cries of a beast. Had he not abused his power, the people would not have revolted against his wickedness; had his crimes not been so grave, his dynasty would not have perished. His reign ended as the cruelty and tyranny he exhibited hastened his downfall, and despite occupying a strategically advantageous land, the kingdom could not endure.
Zi Ying succeeded the throne in sequence, wearing the royal crown adorned with jade ornaments, the imperial seal tied with luxurious ribbons, and riding in the imperial yellow carriage, leading the officials to worship at the Seven Temples. A mere commoner had ascended to a position far beyond his station, filled with anxiety and insecurity, with no sense of command, living in constant fear. Yet, Zi Ying, ever prudent and forward-thinking, set aside his worries, planned with his son, and captured Zhao Gao within the palace, ultimately slaying the treacherous minister and avenging the late emperor by eliminating the traitor. After Zhao Gao’s death, before Zi Ying had even had a chance to offer solace to guests or relatives, before he could swallow his food or sip his wine, the Chu army had already wiped out Guanzhong, and the legitimate emperor had ascended to Bashang. Zi Ying, mounted on a white horse and pulling a white carriage, with a silk ribbon around his neck, holding the imperial seal and orders, presented them to the rightful ruler.
During the Spring and Autumn period, when King Zhuang of Chu invaded Zheng, Duke Zhuang retreated thirty miles after seeing the ceremonial utensils, the wooden flag, and the ceremonial sword from Zheng’s rituals. However, the Huang River had opened its mouth and could not be blocked, and the fish had rotted and could not be revived. Jia Yi and Sima Qian wrote: “Had Zi Ying possessed the abilities of a typical ruler and had he received competent assistance, even though Shandong was in turmoil, Qin’s lands could have been preserved, and the ancestral sacrifices would not have ceased.” The decline of the Qin Dynasty was the result of prolonged decay, and the world had already collapsed. Even a sage like Duke Zhou could not have implemented his strategies. Yet, Jia Yi and Sima Qian erroneously blamed Zi Ying for the fall of the Qin, having ascended to the throne only a few days earlier. The popular belief was that the crimes of Qin Shi Huang had reached their peak under Hu Hai, which is a reasonable view. Jia Yi and Sima Qian further criticized Zi Ying, claiming that the land of Qin could have been preserved—this was an example of not understanding the changes of the times. In the historical records, Ji Ji preserved the royal ancestral temple by reluctantly offering the city of Xi to the state of Qi. “Spring and Autumn” omitted his name to honor his virtue.
When I read the “Annals of Qin Shi Huang,” and came to the part where Zi Ying executed Zhao Gao by dismemberment, I could not help but admire how decisively he acted, showing his competence and fortitude. I feel sympathy for his noble spirit. Zi Ying’s handling of life and death for the greater good was flawless.