Sima Qian, the Grand Historian, once remarked: “The character and function of rituals are indeed vast and magnificent, with a grandeur that serves the masses! They govern all things and direct the multitude of creatures; how can they be achieved by human effort alone? I once visited the great ceremonial officers and studied the evolution of the rituals of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. It was then that I realized that the formulation of rituals, based on human nature and temperament, has been a long-standing tradition.”
The principles of human conduct, though numerous, all stem from one fundamental rule: to guide people towards understanding benevolence and righteousness, while using punishment as a constraint. Thus, individuals with deep virtue attain high status and honor, enjoying rewards and privileges, thereby unifying the consciousness of the people and aligning their hearts. When people feel comfortable riding in chariots and on horses, they decorate them with gold, carving intricate designs and inlaying them with precious metals, all to enhance their appearance. The human eye, attracted to vibrant beauty, leads to the design of embroidered patterns and splendid adornments. Ears, delighted by harmonious sounds, cause a variety of instruments to be tuned, stirring the soul. People, fond of fine cuisine, indulge in delicacies, whether sour or salty, each fulfilling its distinct flavor. The human penchant for precious and exquisite objects results in the creation of jade ceremonial objects, meticulously carved to please the senses.
And yet, where does it end? The extravagant accumulation of material pleasures eventually led to the creation of wide roads, luxurious seating, and extravagant attire, in an attempt to curb excess, prevent decay, and preserve dignity. The order of society, from rulers to commoners, from the nobles to the peasants, dictates that everything has its appropriate measure, and every object should be adorned in moderation. Confucius once remarked, “After the rituals of the sacrificial offerings were disrupted, I no longer wished to witness them.”
After the decline of the Zhou dynasty, the rituals were abandoned, and music systems were destroyed. Social distinctions were no longer observed, leading to events like Guan Zhong marrying women from three different clans. Those who adhered to laws and moral principles were ridiculed, while those who indulged in excess gained fame and honor.
Even great disciples like Zixia of Confucius’ school lamented: “When I went out and encountered an array of splendid and beautiful things, I was delighted, and when I returned to hear the teachings of the Master, I was equally pleased. Both would often compete in my mind, and I could not decide which to prioritize.” How much more so for those of lesser status, who lived in customs and environments where proper education was lacking? Confucius once said about the politics of the State of Wei: “One must first correct their names and titles,” but this was never realized there. After Confucius’ death, his disciples scattered far and wide, some to Qi and Chu, others retreating to Hebei and other regions. This, truly, is a source of deep sorrow.
When Qin unified the country, it absorbed the ritual systems of the six warring states, selecting the best among them, and although it was not in perfect alignment with the practices of the ancient sages, it did maintain respect for the emperor and suppress the power of the ministers. This brought order and dignity to the imperial court, resembling the ancient systems. During the reign of Emperor Gao of Han, as he restored peace to the empire, Confucian scholars like Shusun Tong made adjustments to the Qin system and established the Han system, though its core structure remained largely unchanged from that of Qin. The title of the emperor, the ranks of ministers, and even palace and official titles were little altered.
When Emperor Xiaowen ascended the throne, his government officials advised him to revise the ceremonial system. At that time, Emperor Xiaowen favored Daoist philosophy, believing that the complex rituals were mere embellishments with no real effect on governance. He did not adopt their suggestions. During the reign of Emperor Jing of Han, the Chancellor Chao Cuo, a man of profound legal and political understanding, frequently advised, saying, “The feudal lords are the emperor’s guardians and assistants, much like the ministers. This has always been the case, both in the past and present. But now, the feudal lords of large states govern their territories independently, with their policies diverging from those of the court, and they no longer report matters to the capital. This is unsustainable and will harm future generations.” Emperor Jing accepted his advice, weakening the power of the feudal lords, which led to revolts in the six states. The emperor, in a desperate attempt to quell the crisis, had Chao Cuo executed, as detailed in the “Biography of Yuan Ang.” From then on, officials focused merely on forming alliances with feudal lords and enjoying their stipends, and no one dared to revive Chao Cuo’s recommendations.
When Emperor Wu of Han ascended the throne, he gathered a team of scholars versed in Confucianism to help formulate a new system of rituals. After over ten years of effort, they were unsuccessful. Some argued that in ancient times, when the world was at peace, and the people were content, various auspicious signs were sent from heaven, allowing the selection of customs and the formulation of laws. Today, these conditions no longer exist. The emperor issued an edict to the Grand Historian, saying: “Throughout the history of the various dynasties, while each had its own reasons for success, they all ultimately followed the same path, beginning with the people’s will and adjusting the system according to the customs of the time. But today, those who advocate for the ancient ways over the present are misguided. What hope do the common people have? The Han dynasty has a legacy, but the legal and ritual systems cannot be preserved. How shall we explain this to future generations? The effects of prosperous governance on the future are vast, while shallow governance has a narrow impact. How can we not encourage self-discipline?” Consequently, Emperor Wu of Han reformed the calendar, changed clothing styles, initiated the worship of Mount Tai, and established the rituals for the royal temples and the officials, thus laying down the system that would endure for future generations.
Rituals are born of human nature. Humans are inherently driven by desires, and when these desires are unmet, resentment and anger arise. When such emotions are left unchecked, conflict follows, which inevitably leads to chaos. Ancient rulers, understanding the destructive power of chaos, established rituals to nurture human desires, fulfilling people’s needs, ensuring desires do not go unfulfilled due to scarcity, and preventing resources from being drained by excessive wants. In this way, desires and resources are mutually supported and nourished. Hence, rituals came into being. Rituals are, therefore, a form of nourishment.
The gentleman, having his desires nourished and fulfilled, is also willing to be governed by the principle of “distinction.” Distinction means recognizing the ranks and differences among people: the noble from the lowly, the elder from the younger, the rich from the poor, ensuring that everyone is treated according to their station. Accordingly, the emperor has broad roads and luxurious seating to nourish his body; fragrant herbs are placed nearby to nourish his sense of smell; elaborate decorations on his chariot nourish his vision; the sounds of jingling bells, soft like the “Wu” and “Xiang” dances, or sharp like the “Shao” and “Huo” dances, nourish his ears; under the dragon’s flag, the nine pendants hang low to nourish his reputation. In battle, the chariot’s leather seat, made of rhinoceros and ox hides, the carved tiger patterns on the handles, and the fine fish-skin coverings on the horses’ bellies, serve to nourish his power. The horses must be disciplined and tame to ensure the emperor’s security. Who knows that a gentleman’s life, from birth to death, is devoted to preserving his honor? Who knows that generous acts and the free flow of wealth are meant to safeguard riches? Who understands that humility, politeness, and constant observance of rituals are meant to preserve peace? Who knows that knowledge and manners can nourish one’s temperament?
One who seeks only survival at any cost will surely perish. One who is solely focused on profit will inevitably suffer harm. Those who are complacent and lazy will face danger, while those who stubbornly cling to their desires will meet ruin. Therefore, the sage, by abiding strictly by rituals and ethics, can escape death, avoid harm, live in peace, and navigate every situation with success. In contrast, abandoning the path of virtue will lead to the loss of both life and fortune. This is the distinction between the teachings of Confucianism and Mohism: the former guides people to achieve the best of both worlds, while the latter leads to the loss of both.
Rituals are the key to resolving confusion in governance, the foundation of a strong nation, the essential method of wielding power, and the ultimate expression of merit and position. A ruler who follows these rituals can unify the realm and bring vassals into submission. Those who disregard them will bring ruin to their country and destroy their own families. Thus, sturdy armor and sharp weapons alone cannot guarantee victory; neither can high city walls or deep moats alone ensure defense. Harsh decrees and severe punishments do not necessarily command respect. Only by adhering to rituals can a ruler succeed in all matters. Those who ignore rituals will see their efforts crumble.
The people of Chu once used sharkskin, rhinoceros hide, and oxen hides for armor, which were as durable as metal. They also had large iron spears forged in Wan City, capable of piercing with the sharpness of a scorpion’s sting. Their army was swift, like a storm. Yet, despite these formidable weapons and quick movements, their forces were defeated at Chui She, and General Tang Mai died in battle. How could this be due to the lack of strong armor and weapons? It was the lack of proper leadership. Though Chu had natural barriers, such as the Ru and Ying rivers, the Min and Han rivers, and the strategic forested lands, their enemies, led by Qin, marched straight to Yan Ying, overwhelming them with ease. How could this be attributed to the absence of natural defenses? It was the lack of proper command.
King Zhou of the Shang dynasty executed innocent people and invented cruel tortures. The people were afraid, but when the Zhou army arrived, no one obeyed his orders. The people refused to be ruled, despite his harsh decrees and punishments. It was not due to weak discipline but because of his failure to lead properly.
In ancient times, weapons were simple—spears, arrows, and bows—but even without their use, enemy states would already be in disarray. The people didn’t need to assemble to defend the city, nor did they need to dig moats or fortify positions. No military strategies were required, and yet the country remained safe, unafraid of external threats, and extraordinarily stable. The secret lay in understanding the principles of ritual and virtue, ensuring that resources were shared fairly, that labor was occasionally required, and that there was mutual respect and care among the people. Thus, the people obeyed as if following shadows or sounds, and if anyone disobeyed, they were swiftly punished, with the entire population acknowledging their wrongdoings. This is why a single punishment was enough to ensure order in the entire kingdom. With fewer penalties and more efficiency, the law could be implemented smoothly. All of this arose from the application of ritual and virtue.
Thus, when the Way of Ritual and Virtue is followed, all things can be accomplished; when it is not, everything will falter. In ancient times, Emperor Yao ruled the world with such wisdom that he punished one person and sentenced two others, yet the realm prospered. The records say, “Although his punishments were severe, they were never applied unnecessarily.”
Heaven and Earth are the origins of life, ancestors are the origin of families, and rulers and mentors are the foundation of national governance and stability. Without Heaven and Earth, where would life exist? Without ancestors, how could you be born? Without rulers and mentors, how could the state be governed? If any of these three are absent, there can be no peace. Therefore, rituals begin with reverence for Heaven and Earth, followed by respect for ancestors and mentors—these are the fundamental elements of ritual.
Thus, emperors are able to perform grand ceremonies to honor the heavens and their ancestors, a right exclusive to them, and no other lords dare to harbor such thoughts. Nobles and scholars each have their own ancestral rites, which they dare not perform for their ancestors, and this distinction marks the difference between the noble and the humble. When there is a clear difference between high and low, it establishes the foundation of ritual. Only the emperor has the authority to perform sacrifices to the heavens and to worship his great ancestors. Lesser lords may establish their own shrines to honor the land, and scholars and other officials also have their respective rites. This system represents the principle that those who are respected must serve those of higher status, while those of lower rank serve the lesser. The principle is simple: greatness should match greatness, and smallness should match smallness.
The grand ceremonies performed by the emperor show a hierarchical order of respect. The emperor’s rites extend to the worship of ancestors for seven generations, while those of commoners are limited to two generations, and farmers, who feed the people, do not establish ancestral temples. This demonstrates that the more virtuous one’s deeds, the wider the scope of their blessings, while those with fewer virtues are confined to a narrower influence.
During sacrificial rites, the wine should be of the finest kind, representing the respect for the spiritual realm. The sacrificial meat must be the best, representing the honoring of the gods with food. The grand feasts during these ceremonies also emphasize the importance of quality over quantity—fine wine and the richest dishes are symbolic of respect for the ancestors and deities, even though the offerings may differ in their substance from the actual nourishment of those participating in the rites. In this context, “quality” refers to the essence of the ritual, while “practicality” refers to the needs of the participants.
True ceremonial observance brings harmony between form and substance. The form represents ritual, and the substance embodies the spirit of the ritual. The two are integrated, but without overindulgence, maintaining the balance necessary for the ritual’s success. For ceremonies to be truly respectful, they must honor both the material and the spiritual—whether it is the attire worn for the funeral rites, or the way sacrifices are made, all must convey simplicity and authenticity. The most perfect rituals are those where the emotions of the participants are genuine and restrained, and where the form of the ceremony is equally simple yet elegant.
Rituals begin with simplicity and only gain complexity when necessary. This complexity must not be excessive, and must be balanced with practicality. Thus, the highest form of ritual is one that embodies both emotion and form, balancing them so that neither overwhelms the other. A perfect ritual aligns with both human feelings and material expressions, avoiding excess on either side. It should resonate with the nature of the occasion, avoiding rigid formalism and extravagant display.
In this context, the purpose of ritual is not to burden the people with excess, but to foster a sense of harmony and balance. Ritual is the means through which human society acknowledges its place in the greater cosmic order. The success of a kingdom is not based on military strength or strategic fortifications alone, but on the integrity of its rituals, which instill respect for authority and foster social cohesion.
Rituals, at their essence, reflect an understanding of nature’s harmony, regulating both individual behavior and state affairs. Without ritual, there can be chaos; with it, there is order, stability, and prosperity. A society that follows ritual without deviation will thrive, while one that neglects it will fall into disarray.
Thus, the highest expression of ritual is the capacity to balance between the written and unwritten rules of human conduct. It guides the moral and ethical behavior of the individual and the community alike, allowing them to live in accordance with the cosmic order. Ritual, in its most refined form, becomes the path to wisdom and virtue, bringing peace, stability, and prosperity to the state and to its people.