Xiang Ji, also known as Xiang Yu, was born into a military family. His uncle was Xiang Liang, whose father was Xiang Yan, a renowned general of the Chu Kingdom who was tragically killed by the Qin general Wang Jian. The Xiang family had been military commanders for generations, serving in the Chu state, which is why they took the Xiang surname.
When Xiang Yu was young, he learned to read and write but did not complete his studies, so he gave up on them. He also attempted to learn swordsmanship but abandoned that as well, which angered his uncle, Xiang Liang. However, Xiang Yu replied, “Writing is only useful for recording names; swordsmanship can only help me fight one person at a time. I need to learn something that can help me defeat thousands.” At that point, Xiang Liang decided to teach him military strategy, and Xiang Yu was very eager to learn. However, he quickly lost interest after grasping only the basics of military tactics.
Xiang Liang was once implicated in a legal case and imprisoned in Yueyang County. He asked Cai Jiu, a local official from Qi County, to write a letter of recommendation to Sima Xin, the warden of Yueyang, which ultimately led to his release. Later, to escape enemies after committing another crime, Xiang Liang and Xiang Yu fled to Wu. In Wu, although there were many capable individuals, none could match Xiang Liang’s skills. During times of large public works or funerals, Xiang Liang would often take charge, secretly using military strategies to organize guests and young men, learning about their abilities in the process.
When Emperor Qin Shi Huang toured Kuaiji County and crossed the Zhejiang River, Xiang Liang and Xiang Yu went to watch. Xiang Yu declared, “That man, I could replace him!” Alarmed, Xiang Liang quickly covered his nephew’s mouth, warning, “Don’t speak recklessly, or our entire family could be executed!” However, this incident led Xiang Liang to realize that his nephew was no ordinary person. Xiang Yu was over 8 feet tall, incredibly strong, and capable of lifting cauldrons. His talent surpassed that of most people, and even the young men of Wu were afraid of him.
In the first year of the reign of the second Qin Emperor (209 BC), Chen She and others led a rebellion in Daze Township. In September of that year, the governor of Kuaiji County, Yin Tong, told Xiang Liang, “The entire region west of the Yangtze River has revolted. This must be heaven’s will to destroy the Qin dynasty. I believe that whoever takes the initiative will be able to control the situation. I plan to raise an army to rebel against Qin, and I want you to lead the forces alongside Huan Chu.” At the time, Huan Chu was in hiding. Xiang Liang responded, “Huan Chu is hiding and no one knows his whereabouts, except for Xiang Yu.” He then went out to instruct Xiang Yu to wait with a sword, and after a short time, Xiang Liang made a signal. Xiang Yu immediately drew his sword and decapitated the governor. Holding the head of the governor in one hand and the official seal in the other, Xiang Liang caused a great panic. Xiang Yu went on to kill about a hundred people. The entire county office was thrown into chaos, and no one dared to rise. Xiang Liang then gathered his allies and explained the reasons for rebellion, launching the insurrection in Wu.
Xiang Liang sent people to seize control of the counties under Kuaiji, amassing a force of 8,000 elite soldiers. He appointed local heroes as military officers, including commanders and strategists. One man, however, was left without a post and came to Xiang Liang to complain. Xiang Liang replied, “Not long ago, I asked you to handle a funeral, but you failed. That’s why you’re not being appointed.” After hearing this, everyone respected Xiang Liang even more. Soon, Xiang Liang was appointed as the governor of Kuaiji, with Xiang Yu as his deputy, and they began their campaign to occupy the counties.
At that time, Zhao Ping of Guangling sent word that King Chen had dispatched him to survey and occupy Guangling, but the region had not yet submitted. Zhao Ping, upon hearing that King Chen’s army had been defeated and the Qin forces were approaching, crossed the Yangtze River under the pretense of orders from King Chen and appointed Xiang Liang as the Senior General of the Chu Kingdom. Zhao Ping declared, “The eastern land has been pacified. Quickly lead your army westward to attack Qin!” Xiang Liang led 8,000 men across the Yangtze River toward the west. Upon hearing that Chen Ying had already occupied Dongyang, Xiang Liang sent emissaries to meet him and merge forces to march west. Chen Ying, formerly a local magistrate, was known for his honesty and diligence. When young men in Dongyang killed the magistrate and gathered a force of thousands to choose a leader, they turned to Chen Ying, who hesitated but was forced to accept the leadership. Soon, his following swelled to 20,000. The young men wanted to declare Chen Ying as king and distinguish their army by wearing green headbands. Chen Ying’s mother warned him, “Since I married into your family, I’ve never heard of any of your ancestors being noble. Now that you suddenly have such fame, it may not be a good omen. Perhaps it’s better to join another cause, where you could become a marquis if successful, or escape easily if you fail.” Heeding his mother’s advice, Chen Ying refrained from claiming kingship and instead pledged loyalty to Xiang Liang. As a result, his army joined Xiang Liang’s forces. Together with generals like Qing Bu and Pu, Xiang Liang amassed an army of 60,000 to 70,000 men and stationed them at Xiapi (in modern-day Jiangsu).
At this time, Qin Jia had already appointed Jing Ju as the King of Chu and stationed him east of Pengcheng to block Xiang Liang’s westward advance. Xiang Liang addressed his troops, saying, “Chen Sheng led the earliest uprising, but his campaign was unsuccessful, and we don’t know where he is now. Now Qin Jia has betrayed Chen Sheng and appointed Jing Ju as the King of Chu, which is an act of great treason.” Xiang Liang then marched to confront Qin Jia. Qin Jia’s army was defeated and fled, and Xiang Liang pursued them all the way to Huling. Qin Jia turned back and engaged Xiang Liang in battle. After a full day of fighting, Qin Jia was killed, and his forces surrendered. Jing Ju fled to Liang, where he died. Xiang Liang took control of Qin Jia’s troops and stationed them at Huling, preparing to march westward to confront the Qin.
Qin General Zhang Han’s army arrived at Lixian, and Xiang Liang sent his subordinate generals, Zhu Jishi and Yu Fanjun, to face Zhang Han. Unfortunately, Yu Fanjun was killed, and Zhu Jishi was defeated, retreating back to Huling. Xiang Liang then led his troops into Xue County, where he executed Zhu Jishi. Prior to this, Xiang Liang had dispatched Xiang Yu to attack Xiangcheng, which held out and refused to surrender. After capturing Xiangcheng, Xiang Yu buried all the soldiers and civilians alive before returning to report to Xiang Liang. Upon hearing that King Chen had indeed died, Xiang Liang summoned his various generals to Xue County for a conference to discuss their next steps. At this time, the King of Pei, Liu Bang, also raised an army in Peixian and responded to the call to join the meeting in Xue County.
At this gathering, Fan Zeng, a 70-year-old strategist from Chao, who had long retired from public service, visited Xiang Liang to advise him. Fan Zeng was known for his ingenuity in military strategy. He said to Xiang Liang, “Chen Sheng’s failure was inevitable. The Qin destroyed the six states, and the Chu state was the most blameless of them all. Since King Huai of Chu was deceived into coming to Qin and never returned, the people of Chu have continued to sympathize with him. As the southern ruler of Chu once said, ‘Even if only three households remain, the one to destroy Qin will surely be Chu.’ Now, Chen Sheng has risen in rebellion and established himself as the king without any rightful heirs of the Chu royal family. His fortunes will not last. You, however, have the support of many talented soldiers from Chu, and the people are flocking to you because the Xiang family has long served as generals of Chu, and you are the one destined to restore the Chu throne.”
Xiang Liang found Fan Zeng’s words convincing, so he went in search of the legitimate heir to the Chu throne, the grandson of King Huai, Xiong Xin, who was tending sheep at the time. Upon finding him, Xiang Liang used the posthumous title of his grandfather to formally declare him King Huai of Chu, aligning with the desires of the people. Chen Ying was appointed the Senior Minister of Chu, granted five counties, and tasked with helping King Huai build a new capital at Xuyi. Xiang Liang himself took the title of “Marquis of Wuxin.”
A few months later, Xiang Liang led his troops to attack Kangfu and, alongside the Qi general Tian Rong and Sima Longque, went to support Dong’a, where they delivered a crushing defeat to the Qin army. Tian Rong immediately returned to Qi and expelled King Qi Jia, who fled to Chu. Jia’s relative, Tian Jiao, fled to Zhao. Tian Jiao’s younger brother, Tian Jian, had been a prominent general in Qi but remained in Zhao, too afraid to return to Qi. Tian Rong installed Tian Dan’s son, Tian Shi, as the new King of Qi. After defeating the Qin forces near Dong’a, Xiang Liang pursued the remnants of the army. He repeatedly sent emissaries to urge Qi to send reinforcements to join forces with him, but Tian Rong refused, demanding that the Qi forces would only mobilize once the leaders of the Qin campaign were executed. Xiang Liang responded, “Tian Jia is the king of our allied state, and though he has nowhere to turn, I cannot bring myself to kill him.” Similarly, Zhao was reluctant to kill Tian Jiao and Tian Jian to make a trade with Qi. Thus, Qi refused to send troops to aid the Chu forces.
Xiang Liang then dispatched Liu Bang and Xiang Yu to attack Chengyang, where they slaughtered the inhabitants. They proceeded westward and defeated the Qin forces east of Puyang. The Qin army retreated into Puyang city. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu then attempted to take Dingtao but were unsuccessful. They withdrew and began capturing surrounding towns, eventually reaching Yongqiu, where they defeated the Qin forces and killed Li You. They then turned back to attack Waihuang, but were unable to capture it.
Xiang Liang, after leaving Dong’a, had made significant progress westward, defeating the Qin forces twice, and Xiang Yu had killed Li You, which led them to underestimate the Qin forces. This arrogance began to show. At this point, Song Yi, a strategist, cautioned Xiang Liang, saying, “Victories tend to make generals arrogant and soldiers lazy, which inevitably leads to defeat. The soldiers are becoming complacent, and the Qin forces are steadily increasing. I am worried for you.” But Xiang Liang ignored this advice and sent Song Yi to Qi. On his journey, Song Yi met with the Qi envoy Gao Lingjun Xian, and asked, “Are you going to meet the Marquis of Wuxin?” Gao Lingjun confirmed, and Song Yi remarked, “I believe the Marquis of Wuxin’s army will be defeated. If you delay your journey, you may avoid disaster, but if you rush, you will encounter misfortune.”
As predicted, the Qin dynasty mobilized its full strength to reinforce Zhang Han and launched an attack on the Chu army, delivering a devastating defeat to Xiang Liang’s forces at Dingtao. Xiang Liang was killed in battle. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu, after leaving Waihuang, decided to attack Chenliu, but it held out, and they were unable to conquer it. Liu Bang and Xiang Yu then discussed their strategy, realizing that with Xiang Liang’s death and the demoralization of his troops, they had no choice but to retreat. They withdrew eastward, with Lü Chen’s forces camped east of Pengcheng, Xiang Yu’s army to the west, and Liu Bang’s troops stationed in Dang County.
After defeating Xiang Liang’s forces, Zhang Han considered the Chu military to no longer pose a significant threat, so he crossed the Yellow River and advanced into Zhao, where he decisively defeated Zhao’s forces. At this time, Zhao Xie had become the king, Chen Yu the general, and Zhang Er served as the prime minister, all of whom fled into the city of Julu. Zhang Han ordered his subordinates, Wang Li and She Jian, to encircle Julu, while his own forces camped to the south and constructed a supply route to bring in provisions. Chen Yu’s forces, stationed at the northern end of Julu, became known as the Hebei Army.
After the defeat of the Chu army at Dingtao, King Huai grew fearful. He moved from Xutai to Pengcheng to personally lead the armies of Xiang Yu and Lü Chen, uniting them under his command. He appointed Lü Chen as the Minister of Works, and Lü Chen’s father, Lü Qing, as Chancellor. He appointed Pei Gong as the governor of Dang County, granting him the title of Marquis of Wuan, and tasked him with commanding the army of Dang County.
Earlier, Song Yi had encountered the Qi envoy Gao Ling Junxian on the road, and now he was present in the Chu army. Gao Ling requested an audience with King Huai, stating, “Song Yi predicted that the army of General Wuxin would surely fail, and not long after, it came to pass. When the army has not yet fought, one can already foresee the signs of failure. This is the true art of warfare.” King Huai summoned Song Yi to discuss military matters and greatly admired his insights, appointing him as the Supreme General. Xiang Yu was made Duke of Lu, with other generals following suit, including Fan Zeng as a subordinate commander, to assist in rescuing the state of Zhao. All other generals answered to Song Yi, who was known as “Qingzi Junquan” (Champion of the King).
The army advanced to Anyang and remained for forty-six days without moving forward. Xiang Yu remarked, “I have heard that the Qin army has surrounded King Zhao in the city of Julu. We must quickly cross the Yellow River, attack from the outside, and have Zhao’s forces assist us from within. It is certain we can crush the Qin army.” However, Song Yi disagreed, replying, “That is not the case. A gadfly can harm a large bull but cannot hurt a mere louse. Now, as the Qin army attacks Zhao, even if they win, their soldiers will be weary. We can take advantage of their exhaustion. If they lose, we can march westward, beat the drums, and destroy the Qin forces. So, it is best to let the Qin and Zhao armies battle each other for now. When it comes to leading the charge in battle, General, you are superior to me; but when it comes to strategy and decision-making, I am the better choice.”
He then issued an order to the army: “Be as fierce as tigers, defiant as sheep, greedy as wolves, and stubborn enough to disregard orders—anyone who disobeys will be executed.” Song Yi also sent his son, Song Xiang, to Qi as an envoy, personally escorting him to Wuyan and preparing a banquet to entertain guests. At that time, the weather was cold and rainy, and the soldiers were starving and freezing. Xiang Yu addressed the army, “We all aim to unite and strike the Qin forces, yet our commander delays. Now is a time of famine, the people are poor, and the soldiers are eating yams mixed with beans. We have no supplies left, yet the general prepares a lavish feast and gathers guests instead of leading us to cross the river and gather supplies from Zhao to unite against Qin. The notion of ‘taking advantage of the Qin army’s fatigue’ is folly. How can we defeat such a strong nation as Qin, when they are already attacking the newly formed Zhao? If Zhao falls, Qin will grow even stronger, and we will never have the chance to exploit their exhaustion. Furthermore, after our defeat, King Huai is anxious and has entrusted all of the state’s soldiers and supplies to the Supreme General. The fate of our nation rests on this moment, but the Supreme General shows no care for his soldiers. Instead, he sends his son to seek personal gain in Qi. He is not a true and worthy servant of the state.”
The following morning, Xiang Yu entered Song Yi’s tent and beheaded him. He then emerged and declared to the army, “Song Yi conspired with Qi to betray the Chu state. I have received the King’s secret orders to execute him.” The generals, fearing Xiang Yu’s power, did not dare oppose him. They said, “The one who first revived Chu was General Xiang’s family. Now, it is General who has eliminated this traitor.” Thus, they unanimously proclaimed Xiang Yu as the acting Supreme General.
Xiang Yu dispatched men to pursue Song Yi’s son, catching up with him in Qi and executing him. He then sent Huan Chu to report to King Huai. Helpless, King Huai reluctantly appointed Xiang Yu as the Supreme General. The Generals of Dangyang and Pu were placed under Xiang Yu’s command.
Xiang Yu’s execution of Qingzi Junquan instilled fear throughout Chu and made his name famous among the feudal lords. He first sent the generals of Dangyang and Pu, leading 20,000 men across the Zhang River to rescue Julu. The battles were minor victories, but Chen Yu came requesting more reinforcements. Xiang Yu then led the entire army across the river, sank the boats, broke the cooking utensils, and burned the camp. They only carried enough provisions for three days, showing the troops his resolve to fight to the death.
Upon reaching the front lines, they surrounded Wang Li, engaging in multiple battles, cutting off the Qin army’s supply routes, and decisively defeating them. Su Jiao was killed, and Wang Li was captured. She Jian refused to surrender and committed suicide by self-immolation. By this time, the Chu army was the strongest among the feudal lords, and the armies coming to aid Julu had fortified dozens of camps, but none dared to engage in battle. When the Chu army attacked the Qin forces, the other lords merely observed from their camps.
After defeating the Qin army, Xiang Yu summoned the feudal lords and generals. When they entered the camp, they all knelt, crawling on their knees, and no one dared to look up. From this point onward, Xiang Yu truly became the supreme general of the feudal lords, with all the lords answering to him.
After the Chu army had set up camp at Jiyuan, and the Xiang Yu’s forces stationed themselves at the southern banks of the Zhang River, the two armies faced each other, locked in a standoff with no battle yet fought. As the Qin forces repeatedly retreated, the second Emperor of Qin sent an envoy to question General Zhang Han. Fearful, Zhang Han sent his Chief Clerk, Sima Xin, back to the court to seek further instructions. Upon reaching Xianyang, Sima Xin was detained at the palace gate for three days and was not granted an audience by Zhao Gao, signaling a lack of trust. Terrified, Sima Xin hurried back to the army, taking a different route to avoid detection. Zhao Gao, however, dispatched a pursuit party, but they failed to catch up with him.
Back in camp, Sima Xin reported to Zhang Han, saying, “Zhao Gao has seized all power in the court, and no one beneath him dares act independently. If we win this battle, Zhao Gao will be envious of our achievements. If we lose, we are certain to face death. Please, consider the situation carefully!” At the same time, Chen Yu also sent Zhang Han a letter, stating: “Bai Qi, the great general of Qin, conquered the southern capital of Chu, Yanying, and annihilated the army of Zhao Kuo, the famous general of Ma Fu Jun. He captured cities and vast territories, yet ultimately, he was executed. Meng Tian, another prominent Qin general, drove the Xiongnu from the northern borders, securing thousands of miles of land, but in the end, he too was put to death. Why? Because their accomplishments were so vast that the Qin court could not reward them all. Thus, they sought legal pretexts to eliminate them. You, General, have served as a Qin general for three years now, with losses in the tens of thousands, while local lords are rising up more and more. Zhao Gao has long been a sycophant, and now he fears being killed by the second Emperor. He plans to use the law as an excuse to eliminate you and shift the blame onto you to save himself. You have been away from the court for too long, and enemies there have built up against you. Whether you succeed or fail, you will be executed. Heaven is determined to destroy the Qin dynasty, and everyone, wise or foolish, knows this. You cannot openly advise the court, and here, you are a general of a fallen state, struggling alone. Is this not tragic? It would be far better for you to lead your army, turn back, form an alliance with the other lords, and attack Qin together, dividing the land amongst yourselves. Would this not be better than facing execution and having your family killed?”
Zhang Han hesitated, but secretly sent an envoy, Shi Cheng, to Xiang Yu to negotiate a peace treaty. The treaty failed, and Xiang Yu ordered General Pu to lead the troops day and night across the Sanhu Ferry, to the southern bank of the Zhang River, where they clashed with the Qin forces and defeated them once again. Xiang Yu then led his entire army to attack the Qin forces at Wushui, crushing them in a decisive victory.
Zhang Han, still seeking peace, sent another envoy to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu called a council of his officers and said, “Our supplies are running low, and I am inclined to agree to their terms for the sake of the treaty.” The officers all agreed, and a meeting was arranged on the southern banks of the Huan River at the ruins of Yin. After signing the treaty, Zhang Han met with Xiang Yu, and, overcome with emotion, he shed tears, recounting Zhao Gao’s many misdeeds. Xiang Yu then made Zhang Han King of Yong, placing him within his army and appointing Sima Xin as the Supreme General, commanding the vanguard of the Qin forces.
The army then moved to Xin’an. The officers and soldiers of the feudal armies had previously been conscripted for border duties, and many of them were mistreated by Qin soldiers as they passed through Qin lands. After the Qin soldiers surrendered to the feudal forces, many of them, buoyed by their victory, began treating the former Qin soldiers as if they were slaves, insulting them at will. The Qin soldiers, fearful, secretly discussed among themselves, saying, “General Zhang Han deceived us into surrendering to the feudal lords. If they succeed in conquering Qin, it will be good for us; if not, the feudal lords will take us back to Guandong, and the Qin court will surely kill our families.” The feudal generals learned of these mutterings and reported them to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu gathered his commanders, including Qing Bu and General Pu, and discussed the situation. “The Qin soldiers still outnumber us, and they are not fully loyal. If they refuse to obey orders once we reach Guanzhong, it could be dangerous. It would be better to eliminate them now, leaving only Zhang Han, Sima Xin, and the military official Dong Yi to enter Qin territory.” That night, the Chu army struck, killing over 200,000 Qin soldiers and burying them in mass graves south of Xin’an.
Xiang Yu then led his army westward to conquer the Qin territories. When he reached Hangu Pass, the pass was guarded by soldiers, and he was unable to enter. Upon hearing that Pei Gong had already taken Xianyang, Xiang Yu was enraged and sent the Duke of Dangyang and others to attack Hangu Pass. Only then did Xiang Yu gain entry, advancing west of Xishui.
At the time, Pei Gong’s army was stationed at Bashang, but the two did not meet. Pei Gong’s left-hand general, Cao Wushang, sent an envoy to Xiang Yu, saying, “Pei Gong intends to declare himself king within Guanzhong and appoint the Qin prince, Ying, as his chancellor, claiming all the treasures for himself.” Xiang Yu was furious, exclaiming, “Prepare food and drink for tomorrow; we will reward the soldiers well and crush Pei Gong’s forces!” At this time, Xiang Yu had 400,000 soldiers stationed at Xinfen Hongmen, while Pei Gong had 100,000 troops at Bashang. Fan Zeng advised Xiang Yu, “When Pei Gong was in Shandong, he was greedy for wealth and favored beautiful women. But now that he has entered Guanzhong, he is not taking treasures, nor is he associating with women. His actions show great ambition. I have had my men observe the clouds in his camp, and they have taken on the shapes of dragons and tigers, with a rainbow of colors. This is an omen of imperial fortune. You must act quickly and not miss this opportunity!”
The Left Minister of Chu, Xiang Bo, who was the uncle of Xiang Yu, had always been close to Zhang Liang, the strategist. At this time, Zhang Liang was serving under Liu Bang (the future Emperor Gaozu of Han). One night, Xiang Bo urgently rode to Liu Bang’s camp and secretly met with Zhang Liang, sharing the details of the situation and urging him to leave with him. Xiang Bo said, “Do not follow Liu Bang to his death.”
Zhang Liang replied, “I was entrusted with the task of escorting Liu Bang, the King of Han, and given the circumstances, it would be dishonorable and immoral for me to abandon him now. I must inform him of this.”
Zhang Liang entered the military tent and conveyed Xiang Bo’s words to Liu Bang. Liu Bang was greatly alarmed and asked, “What should I do now?”
Zhang Liang asked, “Who advised you to station troops at the pass?”
Liu Bang replied, “A small-minded person suggested I hold the Hangu Pass, preventing the other warlords from entering, so that I could take all of Qin’s lands and declare myself king.”
Zhang Liang asked, “Do you think your forces can stand against Xiang Yu?”
Liu Bang was silent for a moment before saying, “Of course not. So what should I do?”
Zhang Liang replied, “Please allow me to go to Xiang Bo and assure him that Liu Bang will never betray Xiang Yu.”
Liu Bang asked, “How do you know Xiang Bo?”
Zhang Liang answered, “We had dealings during the Qin Dynasty. Xiang Bo once killed someone, and I helped him avoid the death penalty. Now, in this urgent situation, he has come to warn me.”
Liu Bang asked, “Who is older, you or Xiang Bo?”
Zhang Liang replied, “He is older.”
Liu Bang said, “Then, please ask him to come in. I will treat him as I would an elder brother.”
Zhang Liang went out to invite Xiang Bo into the tent. Xiang Bo entered and was warmly received by Liu Bang, who offered him wine and made arrangements for their children’s marriages. Liu Bang said, “Since I entered the Hangu Pass, I have not touched a single thing, not even the smallest item, and I have registered the people and sealed the stores, waiting for General Xiang to arrive. I stationed troops there to guard against thieves or unexpected events. We have been eagerly awaiting your arrival and have never considered rebellion. Please assure General Xiang that I will never forget the kindness he showed me.”
Xiang Bo agreed and said, “Make sure you apologize to General Xiang first thing tomorrow.”
Liu Bang agreed. That night, Xiang Bo returned to the camp and reported Liu Bang’s words to Xiang Yu. He added, “If Liu Bang had not first breached the pass and defeated the Qin forces, how would you have dared to enter? Now, Liu Bang has achieved great success, yet you are considering attacking him. This is not in accordance with justice. It would be better to treat him well and resolve this matter peacefully.”
Xiang Yu agreed to this advice.
The next morning, Liu Bang, accompanied by more than a hundred attendants, arrived at Hongmen to meet Xiang Yu. Upon arrival, he expressed his regret, saying, “I joined forces with General Xiang to fight against Qin. General Xiang fought in the north while I fought in the south. I never expected to enter the pass and defeat Qin first, but now I am here to see you. It was the scheming of some malicious individuals that sowed discord between us.”
Xiang Yu responded, “It was your left assistant, Cao Wushang, who spread these rumors. Otherwise, how could this have happened?”
Xiang Yu then invited Liu Bang to stay and drink with him.
Xiang Yu, Xiang Bo, and the military strategist Fan Zeng sat facing east, while Liu Bang sat facing north and Zhang Liang sat to the west. Several times, Fan Zeng signaled to Xiang Yu with his eyes and raised his jade pendant to hint at him, but Xiang Yu remained silent, showing no response.
Fan Zeng then stood up, called for Xiang Zhuang, and said, “The king is too soft-hearted. You must go in and offer wine to the king, then request to dance the sword, and take the opportunity to strike down Liu Bang right there at the table. Otherwise, we will all become prisoners.” Xiang Zhuang entered and offered wine to the king, then suggested, “Since there is nothing else to entertain us, may I perform a sword dance?”
Xiang Yu agreed, and Xiang Zhuang drew his sword and began to dance. Xiang Bo also drew his sword, standing in front of Liu Bang to protect him, preventing Xiang Zhuang from attacking. Seeing this, Zhang Liang hurried to the camp gate and called for Fan Kuai.
Fan Kuai asked, “What is happening today?”
Zhang Liang replied, “It is very dangerous! Xiang Zhuang is performing a sword dance, and he is clearly trying to harm Liu Bang!”
Fan Kuai said, “This is too dangerous! Let me go in; I will share life and death with Liu Bang!” Armed with a sword and shield, Fan Kuai charged into the camp. The guards attempted to block him, but he knocked them aside with his shield and rushed into the tent, standing before Xiang Yu with fierce eyes and a defiant posture.
Xiang Yu reached for his sword and stood tall, asking, “Who is this person?”
Zhang Liang replied, “He is Liu Bang’s bodyguard, Fan Kuai.”
Xiang Yu said, “A true warrior! Give him a cup of wine!” His men handed Fan Kuai a large cup of wine.
Fan Kuai accepted the wine and drank it standing. Xiang Yu then ordered, “Give him a pig’s knuckle!” The attendants presented a whole pig’s leg, and Fan Kuai placed his shield on the ground, set the pig’s knuckle on it, and began eating while drawing his sword.
Xiang Yu said, “What a warrior! Can he drink more?”
Fan Kuai replied, “I care not for death, so what is a second cup of wine to refuse? That Qin king was as ruthless as a tiger, killing countless people as if he feared he could not kill enough. The people of the world abandoned him. The King of Huai once made an agreement with his generals to enter Xianyang first, allowing him to become king in the pass. Now, Liu Bang has entered and conquered Xianyang first. He did not touch even the smallest of valuables and has sealed the Qin king’s palace, waiting for you. He has stationed soldiers at Hangu Pass to prevent thieves and unexpected events. Liu Bang has worked hard and achieved much but has not been rewarded with a fief. Yet you are listening to slander and planning to kill the very person who has earned such great merit. This is just following the path of the downfall of the Qin dynasty. I do not believe that you, my lord, will take this course of action.”
These words left Xiang Yu speechless, and he only said, “Sit, sit.”
Fan Kuai sat down beside Zhang Liang. After a while, Liu Bang excused himself to go to the restroom and called Fan Kuai to follow him out.
After the King of Pei (Liu Bang) emerged, General Xiang Yu sent his officer, Chen Ping, to summon him. Liu Bang turned to his trusted ally, Fan Kuai, and asked, “Now that I have emerged, but did not have the chance to formally bid farewell, what should I do?” Fan Kuai replied, “In great undertakings, we need not concern ourselves with small formalities. In moments of great importance, it is unnecessary to shy away from minor reproaches. Right now, the situation is such that we are like fish on a chopping board, while they are like knives, so why bother with farewells?” With that, Liu Bang and his companions departed, leaving Zhang Liang behind to apologize on his behalf.
Zhang Liang inquired, “What gifts did the King bring with him?” Liu Bang replied, “I brought a pair of white jade discs to present to Xiang Yu, and a pair of jade bowls to give to the Duke of the Yan state. But they were angered before I had the chance to offer them. Would you present them for me?” Zhang Liang bowed and said, “As you wish.”
At this time, Xiang Yu’s forces were stationed near Hongmen, while Liu Bang’s army was at Baxian, forty miles away. Liu Bang quickly abandoned his carriage, servants, and entourage, and made his escape alone on horseback. Fan Kuai, Xia Hou Ying, Jin Qiang, Ji Xin, and others, holding swords and shields, followed behind on foot. They descended from Lishan, taking a shortcut through Zhiyang. Before leaving, Liu Bang said to Zhang Liang, “The route from here to our camp is no more than twenty miles. Once we arrive, you may go straight into the camp.”
After Liu Bang’s party left Hongmen and took the shortcut back to their camp, Zhang Liang entered the camp to make his apologies. He said, “The King of Pei has a limited capacity for alcohol, and after drinking a little too much, he could not properly bid you farewell. Therefore, I, Zhang Liang, present these gifts on his behalf: a pair of white jade discs for Your Majesty, and a pair of jade bowls for the General.”
Xiang Yu asked, “Where is the King of Pei?” Zhang Liang replied, “It is said that Your Majesty intended to reprimand him, so he slipped away and has already returned to his camp.”
Xiang Yu accepted the jade discs and placed them on his seat. The Duke of the Yan state took the jade bowls, threw them on the ground, and drew his sword to shatter them, saying, “Alas! Xiang Zhuang and his companions are unfit to share great plans with us. The one who will seize the kingdom from Xiang Yu is undoubtedly the King of Pei. We will all soon become prisoners!”
Upon returning to his camp, Liu Bang immediately executed Cao Wushang, his former aide.
A few days later, Xiang Yu led his troops westward, massacring the city of Xianyang, killing the Qin king’s son, Ziying, and burning the Qin palaces. The flames raged for three months, consuming everything in their path. After plundering the treasures and women of the Qin Empire, he set off eastward.
Someone advised Xiang Yu, “The region of Guanzhong is well protected by mountains and rivers, with fortresses at all four corners. The land is fertile, and it could become a stronghold for your empire.” But Xiang Yu, seeing the ruins of the Qin palaces still burning, longed for his homeland and said, “To enjoy wealth and honor without returning to one’s homeland is like wearing a splendid robe and walking through the night—who will know of it?” The advisor then remarked, “People say that the Chu people are like monkeys wearing human hats, and indeed, it seems true.” Upon hearing this, Xiang Yu had the advisor thrown into a cauldron and boiled to death.
Xiang Yu then sent a report to the King of Huai, updating him on the conquest of Qin. The King of Huai responded, “Let us proceed as agreed.” Therefore, Xiang Yu gave the King of Huai a nominal title, the “Yidi” (King of Justice). Xiang Yu, planning to declare himself king, began by conferring royal titles upon his generals, saying, “At the beginning of the uprising, we established these royal titles for the descendants of the former lords to help us overthrow the Qin Empire. However, it was with strong armor, sharp weapons, and leadership in the battlefield that we achieved victory, defeating the Qin forces and pacifying the empire. While the King of Justice may not have fought in battles, it is only fitting that he be granted lands and a kingdom.” The generals agreed, and so the territories were divided, and the generals were made kings and lords.
However, Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng were wary of Liu Bang gaining control of the kingdom. Despite the reconciliation at Hongmen, they were reluctant to break their earlier agreements, fearing betrayal from the other lords. They secretly planned: “The roads to Ba and Shu are difficult and mountainous, and many of the Qin exiles reside in Shu.” They also reasoned, “Ba and Shu are considered part of Guanzhong.” Consequently, Liu Bang was named the King of Han and given control over the territories of Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong, with his capital at Nanzheng. Xiang Yu divided Guanzhong into three regions and appointed three Qin defectors as kings to block Liu Bang’s path eastward.
Xiang Yu made Zhang Han the King of Yong, ruling the western region of Xianyang with his capital at Feiqiu. Sima Xin, a former clerk who had shown loyalty to Xiang Yu’s uncle, and Dong Yi, who had urged Zhang Han to surrender to the Chu forces, were both given titles. Sima Xin was made the King of Sai, with his capital at Liyang; Dong Yi became the King of Zhai, with his capital at Gaonu. Other regional kings were also established, with their capitals in places such as Pingyang, Luoyang, and various others.
Xiang Yu then proclaimed himself the “West Chu Overlord,” ruling over nine states with his capital at Pengcheng.
In the first year of the Han Dynasty (206 BCE), in April, after the feudal lords had been granted their titles, they disbanded their armies under the General’s banner and went to their respective fiefs. After leaving the Hangu Pass, King Xiang (Xiang Yu) went to his own fief and sent messengers to request the migration of the Yidi (King of Yi). The message stated: “In ancient times, emperors ruled over vast lands, extending thousands of miles, and always resided upstream of rivers.” He ordered that the Yidi be moved to Changsha in Chen County. The messenger hastened the Yidi’s departure, but gradually, the ministers around him turned against him. At this point, Xiang Yu secretly sent the Kings of Hengshan and Linjiang to intercept and assassinate the Yidi in the Yangtze River.
King Han Cheng, lacking military achievements, was not allowed to return to his fief and was brought to Pengcheng, where he was demoted to a marquis, only to be executed shortly thereafter. Upon arriving at his fief, Zang Tu expelled King Han Guang to Liaodong. When Han Guang refused to comply, Zang Tu killed him at Wuzhong and took his land for himself.
Hearing that Xiang Yu had moved King Shi of Qi to Jiaodong and established General Tian Du as King of Qi, Tian Rong became furious and refused to relocate King Shi to Jiaodong. He seized Qi and rebelled against Chu, launching an attack on Tian Du. Tian Du fled to Chu. Fearing Xiang Yu’s wrath, King Shi secretly fled to Jiaodong. Tian Rong pursued him and killed him in Jimo. Tian Rong then proclaimed himself King of Qi, and after moving west, he killed King Tian An of Jibei, gaining control over all three regions of Qi.
Tian Rong handed over the general’s seal to Peng Yue, instructing him to lead a rebellion in Liang. Meanwhile, Chen Yu privately sent Zhang Tong and Xia Yue to persuade Tian Rong, saying: “Xiang Yu governs the world unjustly. Now, he has moved the former lords to poor territories, while rewarding his own officials with better lands. He has even exiled King Zhao to the northern region of Dai. This is wrong. I have heard that you have risen against Chu and refused to follow Xiang Yu’s immoral command. I hope you will assist us with troops to recover the lands of Zhao.” Tian Rong agreed and sent troops to Zhao. Chen Yu mobilized forces from three counties to join Tian Rong’s army and attacked Changshan, inflicting a great defeat. King Zhao’s original lands were restored, and Chen Yu was made King of Dai.
Meanwhile, Han King Liu Bang, after subduing the three Qin regions, advanced eastward toward Chu, enraging Xiang Yu. In response, Xiang Yu deployed the former magistrate of Wu County, Zheng Chang, as the King of Han, to block the Han army. He also ordered General Xiao Gongjiao to attack Peng Yue, but Peng Yue defeated him. Han King Liu Bang sent Zhang Liang to seize Han lands, accompanied by a letter to Xiang Yu, stating: “The Han King has lost his title of Lord of Guanzhong and desires to secure the region. If you adhere to our previous agreements, I will halt my advance. I should not be moving east.” He also sent letters from the rebelling Qi and Liang to Xiang Yu, stating that Qi and Zhao intended to destroy Chu together. As a result, Xiang Yu abandoned his plans to advance westward and redirected his forces to attack Qi.
Xiang Yu then called upon General Qin Bu of Jiujiang to muster his troops, but Qin Bu refused, claiming illness and only sending subordinates to lead a few thousand men. This angered Xiang Yu. In the winter of the second year of the Han dynasty, Xiang Yu advanced north to Chengyang, where he met Tian Rong in battle. Tian Rong was defeated and fled to Pingyuan, where local citizens killed him. Xiang Yu then continued his northern advance, burning Qi’s cities and houses, burying alive soldiers who had surrendered, and capturing the elderly, women, and children. He ravaged the region until reaching the Bohai Sea, killing many and laying waste to much of the land.
At this time, Tian Rong’s brother, Tian Heng, gathered tens of thousands of scattered soldiers and counterattacked Chu’s forces near Chengyang. Xiang Yu was forced to pause his advance, but despite several battles, he could not break through.
In the spring of that year, Liu Bang led an army of 560,000 troops from five feudal kingdoms to the east to attack Chu. Hearing of this, Xiang Yu commanded his generals to counterattack Qi, and he personally led 30,000 elite troops southward through Luxian, crossing Hulingshan. By April, the Han army had entered Pengcheng, looting treasures and beautiful women, and hosting banquets daily. Xiang Yu led his forces westward toward Xiaoxian, attacking the Han army while advancing eastward. By noon, Xiang Yu had inflicted a great defeat on the Han army, scattering them as they fled toward the Gu and Si rivers, where more than 100,000 Han soldiers were killed. The remaining Han forces fled into the mountains, but the Chu army pursued them to the east of Lingbi, near the Suishui River. With nowhere to retreat, many soldiers drowned in the river, which became blocked and stopped flowing.
Xiang Yu then surrounded Liu Bang’s army with three layers of troops. At this moment, a fierce wind from the northwest arose, toppling trees, destroying houses, and sending sand and stones flying, making it as dark as night. The storm struck the Chu forces, causing chaos and disarray, which allowed Liu Bang to escape with a few dozen cavalry. Liu Bang had planned to go through Peixian to retrieve his family and escape westward, but by the time he arrived, his family had already scattered, and he was unable to meet them.
While traveling, Liu Bang encountered Emperor Hui and Princess Lu Yuan, whom he took along in his carriage. As the Chu cavalry pursued him, Liu Bang realized the danger and threw the Emperor and Princess from the carriage. Each time, Teng Gong and Xiahou Ying would help them back onto the carriage. After several such instances, the siblings were finally saved. Liu Bang continued searching for the Duke of Tai and Empress Lü, but was unable to find them. Meanwhile, his followers, led by the strategist Xun Shiqi, were captured by the Chu army. They were brought back and held as hostages by Xiang Yu.
At this time, Lü Hou’s brother, Lord Zhou Lü, commanded the troops to defend Xia Yi for the King of Han. The Han King traveled by small routes to join him, gradually gathering soldiers from the Han army. Upon reaching Xingyang, the scattered defeated troops had all assembled here, and Xiao He also brought all the elderly and weak citizens from the unregistered population of Guanzhong to Xingyang, reviving the Han forces. The Chu army, which had departed from Pengcheng, frequently pursued the fleeing Han soldiers with the momentum of their victories. However, they were defeated by the Han forces in a battle between Jingyi and Suoyi, south of Xingyang. This victory stopped the Chu army from advancing westward.
King Xiang (Xiang Yu) moved to relieve Pengcheng, pursuing the Han King to Xingyang. Meanwhile, Tian Heng had successfully recovered the Qi region and established Tian Rong’s son, Tian Guang, as the King of Qi. When the Han King was defeated at Pengcheng, all the feudal lords once again pledged allegiance to Chu and abandoned Han. The Han King stationed himself at Xingyang, constructing walled passages on both sides, connecting to the southern bank of the Yellow River to secure grain supplies from Aocang. In the third year of Han (204 BCE), Xiang Yu repeatedly raided Han’s passageways, causing severe shortages of grain and panic among the Han forces. The Han King thus requested peace, proposing to cede the lands west of Xingyang to Han.
Xiang Yu was inclined to accept this proposal. However, his counselor, Lord Fan Zeng of Liyang, warned, “The Han army is now vulnerable. If you let them go now without conquering them, you will regret it in the future!” Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng immediately besieged Xingyang. The Han King, anxious, employed a strategy devised by Chen Ping to sow discord between Xiang Yu and Fan Zeng. When Xiang Yu’s emissary arrived, the Han King had prepared an exceptionally lavish feast, but upon seeing the emissary, he pretended to be shocked and said, “We thought this was the envoy of Ya Fu (Fan Zeng), but it turns out to be your envoy.” He then withdrew the banquet and served poor food to Xiang Yu’s envoy. The emissary reported back to Xiang Yu, who began to suspect that Fan Zeng and the Han King were colluding. Gradually, Xiang Yu stripped Fan Zeng of his power. Infuriated, Fan Zeng declared, “The fate of the empire has already been decided, my king. You must act as you see fit. I wish to return to my homeland and serve the people.” Xiang Yu consented to his request, and Fan Zeng left, but he died from a festering wound before he could reach Pengcheng.
General Ji Xin of Han advised the Han King, “The situation is dire. Allow me to disguise myself as the King and deceive the Chu troops so you can escape.” That night, the Han King sent 2,000 armored women through the east gate of Xingyang. The Chu army, eager to pursue, attacked from all sides. Meanwhile, Ji Xin rode in the imperial yellow carriage, with the flag adorned with feathers at the left of the axle, and proclaimed, “The grain in the city has been consumed, and the Han King has surrendered.” The Chu army cheered. Taking advantage of the confusion, the Han King, accompanied by a few riders, escaped through the western gate of the city, reaching Chenggao. When Xiang Yu saw Ji Xin, he asked, “Where is the Han King?” Ji Xin replied, “The Han King has already left the city.” Xiang Yu had Ji Xin burned alive.
The Han King appointed the officials Zhou Ke, Song Gong, and Wei Bao to guard Xingyang. Zhou Ke and Song Gong discussed, “Wei Bao is a king who has already betrayed his nation, and cannot be trusted to defend the city.” They thus killed Wei Bao. The Chu army soon captured Xingyang and took Zhou Ke prisoner. Xiang Yu offered him a high position, saying, “Be my general and I will make you the supreme commander with a fief of 30,000 households.” Zhou Ke retorted, “If you do not surrender to the Han King quickly, you will be captured by him. You are no match for the Han King.” Enraged, Xiang Yu had Zhou Ke boiled to death, and also executed Song Gong.
After escaping Xingyang, the Han King fled south to Wan and Ye counties, where he met the King of Jiujiang, Qing Bu. As he moved, he gathered more soldiers and re-entered Chenggao, where he made his stand. In the fourth year of Han (203 BCE), Xiang Yu’s forces besieged Chenggao. The Han King escaped with Lord Teng, leaving through the northern gate of Chenggao, crossing the Yellow River and fleeing to Xiuwu to join Zhang Er and Han Xin’s forces. Other generals followed, abandoning Chenggao. The Chu army seized Chenggao and intended to march west. The Han King dispatched forces to Gongs County to block the Chu army’s westward advance.
Meanwhile, Peng Yue crossed the Yellow River and attacked the Chu army at Dong’a, defeating the Chu general Xue Gong. Xiang Yu then personally led an army eastward to confront Peng Yue. The Han King, receiving reinforcements from the Marquis of Huaiyin, planned to cross the Yellow River and march south. However, Zheng Zhong advised the Han King to halt his advance, and he established camp on the northern bank of the Yellow River. The Han King sent General Liu Jia to assist Peng Yue and burned the Chu army’s supply wagons and grain stores. Xiang Yu continued his eastward advance, defeating Liu Jia and forcing Peng Yue to retreat. The Han King, with his forces, then crossed the Yellow River again and reclaimed Chenggao, setting up camp at Xiguangwu to procure grain from Aocang.
Xiang Yu, after defeating Peng Yue and Liu Jia, had pacified the east and turned back to the west. He set up camp at Dongguangwu, facing off against the Han army across the Guangwu Gorge. The two armies held their positions for several months.
At this time, Peng Yue made repeated trips to the Liang region, cutting off the Chu army’s food supply, which greatly troubled Xiang Yu. In a desperate move, he constructed a high-legged wooden board and placed the Han King’s father, Taigong, upon it, declaring, “If you do not surrender quickly, I will boil your father.” The Han King responded, “When Xiang Yu and I served as ministers under King Huai, we swore an oath to be brothers. In that case, my father is also your father. If you are truly set on boiling your father, I hope you will at least spare me a bowl of broth.” Furious, Xiang Yu was about to kill Taigong, but Xiang Bo intervened, saying, “The fate of the world is still uncertain. Those who seek to rule the world will not let family ties sway them. Even if you kill him, it will bring no benefit—only disaster.” Heeding Xiang Bo’s counsel, Xiang Yu relented.
The rivalry between Chu and Han endured for a long time, with neither side emerging victorious. The young soldiers grew weary of prolonged military life, while the elderly and weak were exhausted from the relentless transportation of troops and supplies by land and water. Xiang Yu, the leader of Chu, said to Han Gaozu: “The world has been in chaos for years, and this unrest is due to the conflict between us two. I propose that we settle this once and for all and determine who will dominate. Let us end the suffering of the common people.” Han Gaozu replied with a smile, “I would rather resolve this with wit than with strength.”
Xiang Yu then ordered his warriors to challenge the Han army, and a skilled archer from the Han, Lou Fan, repeatedly defeated the Chu warriors with his precise archery. Enraged, Xiang Yu donned armor and went out to challenge Lou Fan personally. As Lou Fan drew his arrow, Xiang Yu let out a fierce roar, causing Lou Fan to freeze in fear and retreat to his camp, too frightened to continue the challenge. Han Gaozu, upon hearing this, was astonished at the sight of Xiang Yu himself.
The two armies then converged near the Guangwu Gorge. Han Gaozu listed the many wrongs Xiang Yu had committed, and Xiang Yu, furious, demanded that they engage in battle. Han Gaozu, however, refused. While they were in conversation, Xiang Yu ambushed Han Gaozu with a hidden archer, wounding him. Han Gaozu managed to escape to Chenggao.
Hearing of the success of Han’s general, Han Xin, who had conquered the northern regions and defeated the states of Qi and Zhao, Xiang Yu sent Long Que to confront him. However, Han Xin, with reinforcements from the Han cavalry led by Guan Ying, decisively defeated Long Que and killed him. Seizing the opportunity, Han Xin declared himself king. When Xiang Yu heard of the defeat of Long Que, he grew anxious and sent Wu She, a member of the Xiatai clan, to persuade Han Xin to join forces with Chu and divide the world into three parts. Han Xin refused to cooperate.
Meanwhile, Peng Yue returned to Liang and severed the Chu army’s food supply. Xiang Yu ordered his generals, including the Grand Marshal Cao Jiu, to keep a tight defense at Chenggao. He instructed them not to engage in battle with Han, but merely to prevent their eastward advance. “Within fifteen days, I will defeat Peng Yue and pacify the Liang region, then return to join you,” he assured his commanders.
Xiang Yu’s army moved eastward and took control of Chenliu and Waihuang, which initially resisted but eventually surrendered. In his anger, Xiang Yu ordered all men aged fifteen and older in Waihuang to be buried alive. The son of a local official, only thirteen years old, tried to intervene, arguing that the people of Waihuang had only submitted out of fear of Peng Yue’s threats and that further executions would incite widespread fear among the citizens of the Liang region. Xiang Yu, considering the advice, spared the lives of those he had condemned.
Continuing his campaign eastward to Suiyang, Xiang Yu encountered resistance from Han forces. The Han army repeatedly challenged the Chu troops, but Xiang Yu’s men refused to engage. Finally, the Han army sent insults to the Chu camp, provoking Cao Jiu to cross the Si River with his forces. However, the Han forces launched a surprise attack, decisively defeating the Chu army and capturing all their supplies. In the aftermath, Cao Jiu, along with his officers Dong Yi and Sima Xin, committed suicide by the river.
Upon hearing of the defeat at Suiyang, Xiang Yu hurried back, only to find that the Han army, under the leadership of Zhong Li Mei, had surrounded his forces at the eastern edge of Xingyang. In the ensuing chaos, the Chu army was driven into retreat, with many soldiers fleeing into the nearby mountains.
At this point, the Han army was in high spirits, with abundant supplies, while Xiang Yu’s soldiers were weary and starving. Han Gaozu sent Lu Jia to negotiate with Xiang Yu, requesting the release of his father, the Duke of Han, whom Xiang Yu had captured. When Xiang Yu refused, Han Gaozu sent another envoy, Hou Gong, who managed to secure an agreement with Xiang Yu: the world would be divided along the Hong River, with the lands to the west going to Han and those to the east remaining under Chu’s control. After this agreement was made, Xiang Yu released Han Gaozu’s family, and the Han soldiers rejoiced, chanting “Long live the Han.”
Han Gaozu, realizing that the time had come to end the conflict, was advised by his strategists Zhang Liang and Chen Ping to seize the opportunity to destroy Chu once and for all. They warned him that if Xiang Yu was allowed to escape, it would be akin to keeping a tiger at home, leaving a future threat. Han Gaozu followed their advice, and in 202 BCE, he led his forces to pursue Xiang Yu to the south of Yangxia.
Han Gaozu’s army, reinforced by the arrival of Han Xin and Peng Yue, confronted Xiang Yu’s forces at Gaixia. However, the latter’s forces were quickly overwhelmed. As the conflict raged, it became clear that Xiang Yu’s army, weakened by years of war, was no longer capable of sustaining a prolonged fight. The final blow came when Xiang Yu, surrounded and broken, faced the prospect of defeat, bringing an end to the Chu-Han struggle.
The army of Xiang Yu had established a camp at Gaixia, but with dwindling troops and supplies, they were surrounded by the combined forces of the Han army and the allied princes. Late at night, hearing the Han soldiers singing songs of Chu from all directions, Xiang Yu was greatly alarmed and said, “Has the Han completely taken over Chu? How can there be so many Chu people among the enemy?”
In a fit of despair, he rose from his tent and began drinking. A beautiful woman named Yu, who had always been his favored companion, stayed by his side, and his prized steed, the fine horse named Zhui (pronounced “zhuī”), was always ridden by him. At this moment, overcome with emotions, Xiang Yu began to sing a sorrowful song of lamentation: “With strength that could move mountains, my heroism unparalleled, but now fate turns against me, and Zhui shall no longer carry me forward! What will become of Zhui? And what about you, Yu Ji, how should I handle you?” As he repeated these words, Yu Ji, standing beside him, echoed his song. Tears flowed from Xiang Yu’s eyes, and the attendants around him also wept, unable to lift their heads in his presence.
Afterward, Xiang Yu mounted his horse and, with more than 800 of his loyal soldiers on horseback following, broke through the encirclement under the cover of night, escaping southward. By dawn, the Han army realized his escape and sent General Guan Ying with 5,000 cavalry to pursue. After crossing the Huai River, only a little over a hundred of Xiang Yu’s soldiers remained with him. When he reached Yinling, he lost his way and asked a farmer for directions. The farmer deceived him, telling him, “Go left.” Following this advice, Xiang Yu’s forces became trapped in a vast swamp. The Han army quickly caught up.
Xiang Yu then turned eastward, reaching Dongcheng, but by now only 28 of his soldiers remained. The Han cavalry was closing in with thousands of troops. Realizing he could not escape, Xiang Yu addressed his cavalry, saying, “I have led this rebellion for eight years, fought over seventy battles, defeated all enemies, and brought those who resisted to submission. I have never been defeated, and this is how I came to dominate and claim the land. But now, I am trapped here. This is not due to any fault in the battle; it is simply fate’s will. Today, I will fight to the death. I will lead you to break through their encirclement three times, kill a Han general, and cut down their flags, so that you may see, it is truly heaven’s will that I fall, not a failure of the fight.”
He then divided his cavalry into four groups, facing in all directions. Surrounded by the Han army, Xiang Yu charged into the fray and broke through their lines, killing a Han general. At that moment, the Han cavalry, led by Chiquan Marquis Yang Xi, pursued from behind. Xiang Yu glared at him and shouted, and Yang Xi, frightened, retreated several miles. Xiang Yu met up with his remaining cavalry at three separate locations. The Han army, still unaware of Xiang Yu’s position, divided into three groups and surrounded him again. Xiang Yu charged once more, killing a Han army captain and slaying over a hundred of their soldiers, suffering only two casualties among his own men.
“How is this?” Xiang Yu asked his cavalry. “Just as you said, my lord,” they replied, full of admiration.
At this point, Xiang Yu decided to cross the Wu River. The river’s boatman, the village head, was waiting on the shore. He said to Xiang Yu, “Though the eastern lands are small, they stretch for a thousand miles, and the population is vast. It is enough for you to reign there. Please, cross the river quickly. There are no other boats here, and once the Han army arrives, you will have no way to cross.”
Xiang Yu smiled bitterly and replied, “If fate decrees my demise, why bother crossing the Wu River? Besides, I led 8,000 men to the west, and not a single one returned. Even if the people of the east would pity me and offer me the throne, how can I face them? Even if they do not speak, how can my heart not feel shame?”
Turning to the boatman, he continued, “I know you are a loyal elder. I have ridden this fine horse for five years, undefeated, and it once traveled a thousand miles in a day. I cannot bear to kill it, so I will give it to you.” He then ordered his cavalry to dismount and prepare for a final battle on foot. Xiang Yu fought fiercely, killing several hundred Han soldiers.
Eventually, he saw Han cavalry commander Lü Matong and recognized him. “Aren’t you the one who once served me?” Xiang Yu asked. Lü Matong then pointed him out to Wang Yi, saying, “That is Xiang Yu.”
Xiang Yu said, “I’ve heard that the Han king has offered a reward of a thousand pounds of gold and vast lands for my head. Let me give you this reward instead.” He then drew his sword and ended his life.
Wang Yi took Xiang Yu’s head, and the other cavalrymen fought amongst themselves over his body, resulting in the deaths of several. Eventually, five men—Yang Xi, Lü Matong, Wang Yi, Lü Sheng, and Yang Wu—each took a part of Xiang Yu’s body. They reunited the pieces and, as if by fate, the body was whole again. The land was then divided into five portions, with Lü Matong receiving the title of Marquis of Zhongshui, Wang Yi as Marquis of Duyan, Yang Xi as Marquis of Chiquan, Yang Wu as Marquis of Wufang, and Lü Sheng as Marquis of Nieyang.
With Xiang Yu’s death, all of Chu surrendered to the Han, except for Lu County. The Han king, leading his army, intended to sack the city, but upon seeing the loyalty of the Lu people to their monarch, who were willing to die for their faith, the Han king showed Xiang Yu’s head to the elders of Lu. Only then did they surrender.
Xiang Yu had been granted the title of Duke of Lu by King Huai of Chu, and after his death, Lu also eventually surrendered. According to the customs of the Duke of Lu title, Xiang Yu was buried in Gucheng. The Han king mourned for him before departing.
The descendants of the Xiang family were spared from slaughter. Xiang Bo was granted the title of Marquis of Sheyang, and the others of Xiang’s family—Tao Hou, Ping Gao Hou, and Xuan Wu Hou—were also honored. The Han king conferred the surname Liu upon them.
The Grand Historian says: I have heard from Zhou Sheng that Shun had two pupils in his eyes. It is also said that Xiang Yu had the same. Could Xiang Yu be a descendant of Shun? Otherwise, how could his rise have been so sudden? The Qin Dynasty ruined its own policies, and Chen She was the first to rebel. Many heroes emerged, fighting for dominance. However, Xiang Yu did not come from any position of power. He rose in the chaos at the end of the Qin, and within three years, he led the nobles of the former Warring States to overthrow the Qin, dividing the land and declaring himself the Hegemon. His power was brief, but no one before him had achieved such a feat.
As for Xiang Yu abandoning the central plains and yearning for his home in Chu, rejecting the righteous emperor, and establishing himself as king, only to blame the other princes for his downfall—he was wrong. He boasted of his military accomplishments and relied on his personal talents, refusing to follow the ways of the ancients. He believed that the Hegemon’s achievements lay in military conquest and the subjugation of the princes, but in the end, within five years, he lost his kingdom and died at Dongcheng. He still failed to realize his mistakes, and used the words “It is heaven’s will to destroy me, not the fault of the battle” to absolve himself. Was this not absurd?