Emperor Xiaowen, Liu Heng, was the fourth son of Emperor Gaozu, ranking in the middle of his eight sons. In the spring of the 11th year of Emperor Gaozu’s reign (196 BCE), after defeating the rebellion led by Chen Xi, Liu Heng was appointed as the King of Dai and established his capital in Zhongdu. He was born to Empress Bo. In the 17th year of his reign as King of Dai, during the 8th year of Empress Lü’s reign (180 BCE), Empress Lü passed away. In September, members of the Lü family, including Lü Chan, attempted to rebel and threaten the Liu dynasty. The ministers united to eliminate the Lü faction and decided to invite the King of Dai to become the emperor, as detailed in the “Biography of Empress Lü” in the historical records.
The Prime Minister, Chen Ping, and the Grand Marshal, Zhou Bo, dispatched messengers to invite the King of Dai. The King of Dai sought the counsel of his ministers, including Zhang Wu, the Minister of the Interior. Zhang Wu and others discussed, saying: “The court officials were generals under Emperor Gaozu, skilled in military affairs, crafty, and full of strategies. Their intentions may go beyond what they claim; they fear the power of Emperor Gaozu and Empress Lü. Now that they have just destroyed the Lü faction, the bloodshed in the capital is still fresh. Though they come claiming to invite the King, we must not trust them lightly. It is best for the King to feign illness, avoiding the journey, and observe what changes occur.”
However, the Officer of the Middle Court, Song Chang, countered: “The opinions of the ministers are flawed. During the chaotic times of the Qin dynasty, countless heroes and warlords rose, each believing they could rule the empire, but ultimately, it was the Liu family that ascended to the throne. The aspirations of other warlords to become emperor have long been extinguished. Second, Emperor Gaozu divided his domain among his sons in a way that their territories interlocked like teeth in a comb, creating a balanced system that made the Liu family formidable and revered throughout the land. Third, after the establishment of the Han dynasty, the harsh laws of the Qin dynasty were abolished, and new, benevolent policies were enacted, ensuring the people’s loyalty and stabilizing the nation. Fourth, despite the power of the Lü family and their dominance in the court, the Grand Marshal entered the northern army controlled by them, and with a single command, the soldiers abandoned the Lü faction in favor of the Liu family. This was the will of heaven, not the work of men. Now, even if the ministers plot rebellion, the people will not support them. Their supporters are unlikely to be united. Moreover, the capital is protected by powerful relatives, such as the Marquis of Zhu Xu and the Marquis of Dongmu, while outside the capital, strong vassal states like Wu, Chu, Huainan, Langya, Qi, and Dai are in place. They all fear the power of the Liu family. Currently, the only sons of Emperor Gaozu remaining are the King of Huainan and you, the King of Dai. You are well-respected, known for your wisdom, virtue, and filial piety, so the ministers’ decision to invite you to become emperor is in line with the people’s wishes. You need not doubt this.”
The King of Dai reported the matter to the Empress Dowager, still uncertain and undecided. He then conducted an oracle using tortoise shells, and a large horizontal crack appeared, with the prophecy stating: “A great change is signaled by this crack, I shall become the Son of Heaven, like Emperor Xia of the Xia dynasty, carrying forward the legacy of my father.” The King of Dai remarked, “I am already a king; why would I need to become a higher king?” The diviner responded, “The ‘Son of Heaven’ refers to the emperor.” Thus, the King of Dai sent his uncle, Bo Zhao, to the capital to meet with Marquis Zhang Zhou. Zhou Bo and others explained the reasons for inviting the King of Dai to become emperor. Bo Zhao returned and reported that everything was true, leaving no room for doubt.
The King of Dai, smiling, said to Song Chang, “Just as you said.” He then appointed Song Chang to accompany him, along with Zhang Wu and five other officials, to travel to Chang’an. Upon reaching Gaoling, the party stopped, and Song Chang was sent ahead to observe any changes in the situation. As Song Chang reached Wei Bridge, all the officials came out to welcome him. He returned with this news. When the King of Dai arrived at Wei Bridge, the ministers came to pay their respects and swear allegiance. The King of Dai also dismounted to greet them.
Grand Marshal Zhou Bo stepped forward and requested a private audience. Song Chang responded, “If you have official matters to discuss, speak openly; if it is personal, the ruler does not handle such matters.” Zhou Bo then knelt and presented the imperial seal and insignia. The King of Dai declined, saying, “Let us discuss this matter further at the residence.” He then continued to the King of Dai’s official residence, where all the ministers followed. The Prime Minister, Chen Ping, the Grand Marshal, Zhou Bo, the General, Chen Wu, the Minister of Justice, Zhang Cang, and various other officials all approached, performed two bows, and then spoke: “Prince Liu Hong and others are not the sons of Emperor Xiaowu, and thus, should not succeed to the throne. We respectfully consulted with the Marquis of Yin’an, the Queen Dowager, the Marquis of Langya, and other royal family members, ministers, and officials of rank above two thousand stones, and everyone agrees that you, the King of Dai, are the rightful heir to Emperor Gaozu. We implore you to ascend to the throne.”
The King of Dai replied, “Serving the ancestral temple of Emperor Gaozu is a grave responsibility. I lack the ability to fulfill such a duty. I respectfully request that my uncle, the King of Chu, select the most appropriate person for this task. I dare not take on this weighty responsibility.” The ministers all knelt, imploring him to accept. The King of Dai initially sat in the seat of honor facing west, then, after being urged, sat in the seat of the ruler facing south. The ministers, including Chen Ping, insisted that he was the most suitable to serve in this role, and that even if other vassals and the people were consulted, they would agree. The King of Dai, recognizing that all the ministers, vassals, and family members believed there was no one more fitting, reluctantly accepted and ascended the throne as emperor.
The ministers, following the proper protocols, accompanied the emperor in turn. The Grand Marshal, Xiahou Ying, and the Marquis of Dongmu, Liu Xingju, were then dispatched to tidy the imperial palace. A royal carriage, typically reserved for the emperor, was used to bring him to the residence of Dai. That evening, the emperor entered the Weiyang Palace. That very night, he appointed Song Chang as the General of the Guard, overseeing the southern and northern military guards for both palaces, and Zhang Wu as the Minister of the Interior, responsible for overseeing the inner court.
The emperor then held court in the front hall and issued an edict that night, stating: “Recently, the Lü family has dominated the court, acting with arrogance and plotting rebellion, seeking to harm the Liu dynasty. However, thanks to the efforts of the noble ministers, vassals, royal family, and officials, they were eliminated and rightfully punished for their crimes. Now that I have just ascended the throne, I decree a general amnesty throughout the empire. I grant every household head a rank, and for women without husbands or children, I grant one ox and ten shis of wine for every hundred households, allowing the people to gather for five days of drinking.”
In the first year of Emperor Xiaowen’s reign (179 BCE), on the 26th day of the 10th month, Liu Ze, the former King of Langya, was reappointed as the King of Yan.
On the 27th day, Emperor Wen formally ascended the throne and conducted a ceremony at the Temple of Emperor Gaozu to report to his ancestor. Chancellor Chen Ping was reassigned as Left Chancellor, while Zhou Bo was appointed Right Chancellor, and General Guan Ying was appointed Grand Marshal. The lands formerly held by the kingdoms of Qi and Chu, which had been taken from them by the Lü family, were all returned to the Kings of Qi and Chu.
On the 28th day, Emperor Wen sent the General of the Chariots and Cavalry, Bo Zhao, to the state of Dai to bring the Empress Dowager. The emperor remarked: “Lü Chan has appointed himself Prime Minister, while Lü Lü has made himself Generalissimo, falsely claiming imperial authority to dispatch General Guan Ying to lead an army to attack the state of Qi, with the intent to replace the Liu family. However, General Guan Ying remained in Xingyang without deploying troops against Qi, and together with the vassals, they plotted to eliminate the Lü family. Lü Chan’s rebellious schemes were thwarted when Chancellor Chen Ping and Grand Marshal Zhou Bo conspired to strip him and his allies of their military power. Marquis of Zhu Xu, Liu Zhang, was the first to capture and execute Lü Chan and his faction. Grand Marshal Zhou Bo personally led the forces of Xiangping, and Officer Liu Jie seized the general’s insignia from Zhao King Lü Lü. As a reward, Grand Marshal Zhou Bo was granted a fief of 10,000 households and 5,000 jin of gold; Chancellor Chen Ping and General Guan Ying each received 3,000 households and 2,000 jin of gold; Liu Zhang, Marquis of Zhu Xu, and Marquis of Xiangping, Ji Tong, each received 2,000 households and 1,000 jin of gold; and Officer Liu Jie was granted the title Marquis of Yangxin with 1,000 jin of gold.”
In December, Emperor Wen remarked: “Laws are the guiding principles for governing a state, meant to prevent misconduct and lead people toward goodness. Now, while criminals have been punished, there are still cases where their innocent families—parents, wives, children, and siblings—are convicted simply because of their relation to the offenders, even being made slaves. I believe this approach is not suitable. I ask you to reconsider it.” The responsible officials replied: “The common people cannot govern themselves, so laws are enacted to prevent wrongdoing. The practice of collective punishment, where the innocent relatives of criminals are implicated, is meant to make people aware of the serious consequences of crime. This practice has long been in place, and it is better to maintain it rather than change it.” Emperor Wen responded: “I have heard that just laws make the people loyal, and proper sentencing makes them obedient. Moreover, guiding the people toward goodness relies on the actions of officials. If officials cannot guide people toward virtue and instead use unjust laws to punish them, it will only harm the people and incite further violence. How can such laws prevent crime? I see no merit in this approach, so I urge you to reconsider it carefully.” The officials replied: “Your Majesty has bestowed great blessings upon the people, a kindness beyond our comprehension. We will follow your edict and abolish the practice of punishing the families of criminals and other forms of collective punishment.”
In the first month of the new year, the chief ministers advised: “It is important to establish the Crown Prince early as a safeguard for the reverence of the royal ancestors. We request that the emperor appoint a Crown Prince.” The emperor replied: “My virtue is insufficient, and the gods have not yet received my offerings. The people have not yet found peace in their hearts. I cannot simply seek out virtuous and wise individuals to pass on the throne to them. To preemptively appoint a Crown Prince would only add weight to my lack of virtue. How can I justify this to the people? Let us delay this matter for now.” The chief ministers responded: “Appointing a Crown Prince is to ensure the reverence for the royal ancestors and to remember the well-being of the empire.” The emperor replied: “The King of Chu is my uncle, and he is of advanced age with much experience in governance. The King of Wu, my elder brother, is virtuous and kind. The King of Huainan, my younger brother, is capable and supports me with his talents. With them, is it not already arranged? Many of the vassals, royal family members, and meritorious ministers are talented and virtuous individuals. If I were to choose a virtuous person to assist me, it would benefit the nation and bring prosperity to the people. If I fail to select them and instead appoint a Crown Prince, people may think I have forgotten those with virtue and wisdom, merely choosing my own son for selfish reasons. I find this approach unacceptable.”
The ministers insisted: “In ancient times, the kingdoms of Yin and Zhou lasted for over a thousand years due to their practice of appointing a Crown Prince. No dynasty has lasted longer than them. This tradition of establishing a successor has been in place since antiquity. Emperor Gaozu himself led the armies to pacify the empire and establish the monarchy. The first vassals to receive territories were also the founding ancestors of their respective states. The principle of inheritance by sons, passed down from generation to generation, is the great rule of the world. Emperor Gaozu established this system to stabilize the hearts of the people. If we now disregard the rightful heir and choose someone else, it would go against the will of Gaozu. It would be inappropriate to select someone else. Your son Qi is the eldest, virtuous, kind-hearted, and deeply loved for his virtue. We ask that you appoint him as the Crown Prince.” Finally, the emperor agreed. He then decreed that all those who should inherit their father’s estate be granted a rank, and he appointed General Bo Zhao as the Marquis of Zhi.
March: The chief minister requested the emperor to confer the title of empress upon the consort. Empress Dowager Bo remarked, “The emperor’s sons are all born of the same mother; thus, let us make the mother of the crown prince the empress.” The empress’s surname was Dou. Because of the empress’s elevation, Emperor Wen ordered that cloth, silk, rice, and meat be distributed to the impoverished citizens—those without spouses, parents, or children, as well as elderly individuals over eighty and orphans under the age of nine.
Having recently ascended the throne after his arrival from the state of Dai, Emperor Wen immediately endeared himself to the people by showering them with grace and favor, offering comfort to the feudal lords and distant tribes, thereby fostering harmony and joy throughout the realm. He then expressed gratitude to those who had accompanied him from Dai to the capital.
Emperor Wen stated, “When the court officials eradicated the Lü family to welcome me into the capital, I was hesitant, and the ministers from Dai advised against my coming. It was only through the counsel of Zhong Wei Song Chang that I was persuaded to enter the capital and serve at the ancestral temple. I have already promoted Song Chang to the position of General of the Guard, and now I bestow upon him the title of Marquis of Zhuangwu. Furthermore, the six individuals who accompanied me to the capital will all be appointed as ministers in the Nine Ministers.”
Emperor Wen continued, “The sixty-eight marquises who followed Emperor Gao into Shu and Hanzhong have each been granted additional fiefdoms, totaling three hundred households. Those whose official salaries were above two thousand shi, such as Liu Zun, the former governor of Yingchuan, and ten others who served Emperor Gao, are each granted an additional six hundred households. Ten others, including Shen Tu Jia, the former governor of Huaiyang, are each granted five hundred households, and another ten, including Ding of the Wei Guard, are each granted four hundred households. The uncle of the Marquis of Huainan, Zhao Jian, is made the Marquis of Zhouyang, while the uncle of King Qi, Si Jun, is made the Marquis of Qingguo.” In autumn, the former Chancellor of Changshan, Cai Jian, was made the Marquis of Fan.
Some advisors cautioned the Right Chancellor, “You once eradicated the Lü family to support the King of Dai; now you boast of your achievements, receiving the highest honors and residing in a position of great power. Misfortune may soon befall you.” Consequently, the Right Chancellor, Zhou Bo, feigned illness and resigned, leaving the Left Chancellor, Chen Ping, to assume sole control of the chancellorship.
In the second year of Emperor Wen’s reign (178 BCE), in the month of October, Chancellor Chen Ping passed away, and Zhou Bo was once again appointed as Chancellor. Emperor Wen reflected, “I have heard that throughout ancient times, more than a thousand feudal lords established states, each ruling their fiefdoms and paying tribute to the central court. Their subjects were not burdened, and the people were content; there was no occurrence of immoral conduct. Yet, most of our lords reside in Chang’an, far from their territories. This necessitates the provision of supplies and transportation from government officials and soldiers, which wastes resources and creates hardship. These lords cannot govern or guide the people in their fiefdoms. I hereby command the lords to return to their domains, while those remaining in the capital will be required to send their heirs back home.”
On the last day of November, a solar eclipse occurred. On December 15th, another eclipse took place. Emperor Wen declared, “I have heard that Heaven creates all people and appoints rulers to nurture and govern them. If a ruler is unwise and governs unjustly, Heaven sends signs of calamity to warn them. The solar eclipse on the last day of November was Heaven’s condemnation, signaling a failure in governance. What could be a greater sign of this than the eclipse itself? As I serve at the ancestral temple, I, though small in body, am entrusted with the welfare of the people and the lords. The state of the realm, whether orderly or chaotic, rests upon me. You, the ministers who manage the state, are like my left and right arms. I have failed in my governance, causing the celestial bodies to darken, and thus my moral failings are severe. After receiving this edict, I implore you to reflect upon my shortcomings and to point out any areas where I have fallen short in my actions or my policies. You must also recommend virtuous and upright individuals who are capable of offering honest and direct counsel to correct my errors. In addition, I command the officials to properly administer their duties, reduce forced labor and expenses, and ease the burdens on the people. I have failed to extend benevolence to distant lands, and I am anxious that foreign tribes may encroach upon our borders. Thus, the military defense at the frontier has not been relaxed. Since we cannot withdraw the military forces stationed at the borders, I now order an increase in their numbers for protection.”
In January, Emperor Wen declared, “Agriculture is the foundation of the state. I will personally cultivate the imperial fields to provide grain for the ancestral temple’s sacrifices.”
In March, the chief ministers suggested that the emperor confer princely titles upon his sons. Emperor Wen responded, “I mourn the passing of King You of Zhao, Liu You, who died in captivity. His eldest son, Liu Sui, has been made the King of Zhao. Liu Sui’s younger brother, Bi Qiang, as well as Liu Zhang, the son of King Dao of Qi, Liu Xing, the Marquis of Dongyi, and several others who have made contributions, are all deserving of princely titles.” Thus, Liu Bi Qiang, the youngest son of King You of Zhao, was made the King of Hejian; Liu Zhang, the son of King Dao of Qi, was made the King of Chengyang; Liu Xing, the Marquis of Dongmu, was made the King of Jibei; Liu Wu, the emperor’s son, was made the King of Dai; Liu Can was made the King of Taiyuan, and Liu Yi, the emperor’s son, was made the King of Liang.
Emperor Wen said: “In ancient times, to govern the realm, the court established banners for encouraging good counsel and wooden tablets for criticizing the administration. These tools were meant to clear the way for governance and to invite people to offer their advice. However, under current laws, there are punishments for slandering the court or spreading rumors that confuse the people. This has made the ministers hesitant to speak the truth, and the emperor is left unaware of his own shortcomings. How, then, can we attract virtuous men from distant lands? Such provisions should be abolished. If common people curse the emperor in secret, having made mutual vows to conceal their sentiments, and later betray their promises to report one another, the officials deem it a heinous offense. If other complaints arise, they too are considered slanderous. These are merely the ignorant actions of common folk who, due to their ignorance, commit grave offenses. I find such practices utterly unacceptable. Henceforth, anyone guilty of such acts will not be tried or punished.”
September: The emperor issued the first decree to distribute the copper tiger talisman for military command and the bamboo tokens for diplomatic envoys to the chancellors and governors of all the feudal states and regions.
In the third year (177 BCE), October, on the day of Ding You, a solar eclipse occurred. November, Emperor Wen said: “I had previously ordered the lords to return to their respective territories, yet some have found excuses and have not yet departed. The Chancellor is one whom I respect greatly, and I ask him to lead the lords back to their lands.” Therefore, Marquis Zhou Bo of Jiang was relieved of his duties as Chancellor and returned to his domain. Emperor Wen appointed the Marquis of Yingyin, Guan Ying, as the new Chancellor and abolished the position of the Grand Marshal, transferring the military authority of that office to the Chancellor. April: King Liu Zhang of Chengyang passed away. King Liu Chang of Huainan, along with his retainer Wei Jing, killed Marquis Shun of Piyang, Shun Shi Qi.
May: The Xiongnu invaded the northern region of the North District and raided the Henan area. Emperor Wen made his first visit to the Ganquan Palace. June, Emperor Wen stated: “The Han Dynasty once formed a brotherly alliance with the Xiongnu to prevent them from disturbing the borders. We supplied them with vast quantities of goods and offered them lavish gifts. Yet, now, the Right Wise King of the Xiongnu, having left his homeland, has led his forces into the Han-controlled region of Henan without any legitimate reason, entering and leaving the border areas, killing Han officials and soldiers, driving out the indigenous guards, and plundering the interior. This arrogant and unreasonable behavior breaks the previous agreement. Therefore, I have called for the deployment of 85,000 cavalry from the border guards, and I have ordered Chancellor Guan Ying to lead an army to counter the Xiongnu.” The Xiongnu withdrew from the borders. The emperor also summoned brave soldiers from the Middle Wei to join the General of the Guard and be stationed in Chang’an.
On the Xīn-mǎo day, Emperor Wen traveled from Ganquan to Gaonu, stopping by Taiyuan to meet with the officials of the former state of Dai and granting rewards to all. Based on their merits, rewards were distributed, including cattle and wine for the common people, and taxes for the people of Jinyang and Zhongdu were waived for three years. Emperor Wen stayed in Taiyuan for more than ten days.
King Liu Xing of Jibei, upon hearing that Emperor Wen had arrived in the Dai region and was planning to confront the Xiongnu, saw an opportunity to rebel and planned to attack Xingyang. Therefore, Emperor Wen issued an order for Chancellor Guan Ying to withdraw the troops, and dispatched General Chen Wu, Marquis of Jipu, with 100,000 troops to quell the rebellion. General Zeng He, Marquis of Qi, was appointed to station his army in Xingyang. On the Xin-hai day of July, Emperor Wen returned to Chang’an from Taiyuan. He issued a decree, saying: “King Liu Xing has rebelled against the state and caused harm to the people of Jibei. This is an act of grave treason. Officials and civilians who ceased their rebellion before the arrival of the imperial army, and those who surrendered or offered up their cities, shall be granted amnesty, and their official ranks shall be restored. Those who initially joined Liu Xing’s rebellion but later surrendered will also be pardoned.” August: The Jibei rebels were defeated, and King Liu Xing was captured. Emperor Wen declared that all officials and civilians in Jibei who had rebelled along with King Liu Xing would be pardoned.
In the sixth year (174 BCE), the chief ministers reported that King Liu Chang of Huainan had disregarded the laws set by the late emperor, ignored the imperial edicts, expanded his palace beyond the prescribed limits, and paraded with the pomp and circumstance of an emperor. He independently made laws and conspired with the Crown Prince of Jipu, Chen Qi, to rebel. They sent envoys to Minyue and the Xiongnu to seek military aid in a plot to harm the imperial family. The ministers debated this matter and all agreed that “Liu Chang should be executed in the marketplace as a public example.” Emperor Wen, unable to bring himself to execute King Liu Chang, commuted his death sentence, abolished his royal title, and prohibited him from holding any princely fief. The ministers requested that King Liu Chang be exiled to the regions of Yandao and Qiong in Shu. Emperor Wen consented. However, before Liu Chang could reach his place of exile, he fell ill and died on the way. Emperor Wen, feeling sympathy for him, posthumously honored Liu Chang as King Li of Huainan in the sixteenth year (164 BCE), granting him a posthumous title and conferring princely titles on his three sons: Liu An became King of Huainan, Liu Bo became King of Hengshan, and Liu Ci became King of Lujiang.
In the thirteenth year (167 BCE), summer, Emperor Wen stated: “I have heard that Heaven’s way is that calamities arise from resentment, and blessings come from virtue. The mistakes of the officials should be borne by me alone. Yet the secret envoys have shifted blame onto the lower ministers, and the result is that my own lack of virtue is revealed. I do not approve of this. This practice should be abolished.”
May: The Prefect of the Grand Warehouse of Qi, Chunyu Gong, committed an offense and was sentenced to punishment. The court issued an edict for the prison officials to arrest him and bring him to Chang’an for confinement. Chunyu Gong had no sons, only five daughters. As he was being taken away, he cursed his daughters, saying, “You have borne no sons, and now, in a time of crisis, you are of no use!” His youngest daughter, Ti Ying, was heartbroken and followed her father to Chang’an. She submitted a petition to the court, stating: “My father served as an official, and the people of Qi praised his integrity and fairness. Now, having committed a crime, he must be punished. What saddens me is that those sentenced to death can never live again, and those who suffer corporal punishment will remain maimed for life. Even if they wish to repent, there is no opportunity. I am willing to serve as a servant in the government to atone for my father’s crime, so that he may have a chance to reform.”
When the petition reached Emperor Wen, he was moved by Ti Ying’s filial piety and issued an edict: “In the time of the legendary emperor, Yao, criminals were marked only with distinctive patterns or colors on their clothes to shame them, and thus deterred others from committing crimes. This was effective because the politics of that time were exceptionally pure. Today, however, we have severe punishments such as branding, nose-cutting, and amputations, yet crime persists. Where does the fault lie? It is because I have failed in cultivating virtue and failing to educate the people properly. I feel deeply ashamed. Therefore, we should abandon such forms of corporal punishment.”
Emperor Wen continued, “Agriculture is the foundation of the state and the most important aspect of governance. Presently, farmers toil away at cultivating the land but still have to pay land taxes, making farming indistinguishable from trade or handicrafts. The distinction between the two is blurred, and this is due to an inadequate system to encourage agricultural labor. We must abolish the land tax.”
Winter, fourteenth year (166 BCE): The Xiongnu plotted to invade the borders and raid Chona Pass, killing Sun Ang, the Governor of North District. Emperor Wen then dispatched three generals to station their armies in Longxi, North District, and Shang District. He appointed Zhongwei Zhou She as General of the Guard and Langzhong Ling Zhang Wu as General of Chariots and Cavalry, with forces including 1,000 chariots and 100,000 cavalry stationed north of the Wei River. Emperor Wen personally visited and inspected the army, offering words of encouragement and rewarding the soldiers. The emperor considered leading the army himself to strike the Xiongnu, but his ministers advised against it, and the Empress Dowager strongly opposed. Emperor Wen then relented and appointed Zhang Xiangru, Marquis of Dongyang, as General, with Chenghou Dong Chi as the Minister of the Interior and Lüan Bu as a general to lead the military against the Xiongnu, who eventually fled.
In the spring of the same year, Emperor Wen stated: “I have had the honor of managing the sacrifices and offerings to the gods, and have ascended the throne of heaven for the past fourteen years. Yet, for such a long time, I, a man neither wise nor capable, have ruled the realm, and I am deeply ashamed. We must expand the sites for sacrifices and increase offerings of jade and silk. In the past, the ancient kings bestowed grace without expecting return, worshiped the mountains and rivers without seeking blessings for themselves, and revered the virtuous while suppressing their own kin—this was the utmost in wisdom. However, I have heard that the priests now pray for blessings solely for me and not for the people, which fills me with deep remorse. With someone as lacking in virtue as I am, to receive blessings from the gods while the people do not, only magnifies my moral failings. Henceforth, I will decree that the priests offer their respect to the gods but not pray solely for my benefit.”
At this time, Zhang Cang, the Marquis of Beiping, held the position of Chancellor and had just established a new musical scale and calendar. Gong Sun Chen of Lu submitted a memorial expounding the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire, and earth, and how they interact to symbolize the rise and fall of dynasties. He claimed that the current “earth element” would be validated by the appearance of a yellow dragon, suggesting the need to revise the calendar, colors, and other institutional practices. Emperor Wen tasked the Chancellor with investigating this matter. After careful calculation, Zhang Cang concluded that the current era aligned with the water element and firmly established that the first month of winter should begin the new year, with black being the honored color. He disagreed with Gong Sun Chen’s argument and petitioned Emperor Wen not to adopt his proposal.
Fifteenth year (165 BCE): A yellow dragon appeared in Chengji County, and Emperor Wen summoned Gong Sun Chen again, appointing him as a scholar to further elaborate on the theory of the earth element. The emperor then issued an edict: “A mysterious yellow dragon has appeared in Chengji, and though it has not harmed the people, it is a sign that this year will be a prosperous one. I will personally travel to the outskirts to offer sacrifices to Heaven and the gods.” The ritual officials deliberated on this matter, not wishing to burden the emperor with fatigue. The ministers and ritual officials explained that in ancient times, the emperor personally made sacrifices in the summer, thus the practice of “Jiao” (outdoor sacrifices) was established. Emperor Wen then visited Yong for the first time to conduct the “Jiao” sacrifice to the Five Emperors. In early April, he paid respects to the Heavenly Emperor.
Zhao Guo’s Xin Yuan Ping, known for his expertise in observing the clouds and predicting auspicious or ominous signs, came to advise Emperor Wen. He suggested that the emperor build a temple to the Five Emperors in Weicheng and predicted that this would lead to the appearance of the Zhou Dynasty’s precious ritual tripod and the discovery of rare and beautiful jade.
Sixteenth Year (164 BCE): Emperor Wen personally traveled to the Weiyang Five Emperors’ Temple to perform the summer sacrifices, continuing the practice of offering tribute to the Heavenly Emperor, while also honoring the color red.
Seventeenth Year (163 BCE): Emperor Wen received a jade cup, which was actually a deceitful gift from Xin Yuan Ping, who had arranged for the cup to be presented to the emperor. The cup was inscribed with the words “The Ruler’s Longevity.” In response, Emperor Wen issued an edict declaring that the current year would be renamed as the first year of the new era. He also ordered the people of the empire to indulge in gatherings and feasts, celebrating with wine. However, later that year, Xin Yuan Ping’s deception was uncovered, and his entire family was executed.
Second Year of Houyuan (162 BCE): Emperor Wen lamented, “I am not wise enough to extend benevolence to distant regions, and as a result, some foreign nations often invade our borders. The people in these borderlands live in constant turmoil, and even those in the interior work tirelessly without rest. These failures are due to my lack of virtue, which has failed to extend to distant lands. For several years now, the Xiongnu have been harassing the borders, killing many of our officials and citizens. The border officials and generals have failed to understand my intentions, which only exacerbates my failures. How can peace be maintained when enmities persist and wars never cease? I have worked tirelessly, rising early and retiring late, to govern and to care for the people, but still, my concerns remain unresolved. That is why I have sent numerous envoys, with their vehicles and hats lined up along the roads, to deliver my message to the Xiongnu Chanyu. Now that the Chanyu has returned to a path of peace, we have concluded a treaty of alliance to maintain harmony for the sake of the people. From this year onwards, we shall walk the path of peace and fraternity.”
Sixth Year of Houyuan (159 BCE): During the winter, the Xiongnu launched invasions, sending 30,000 troops to attack Shangjun and another 30,000 to invade Yunzhong. Emperor Wen appointed the Grand Official Ling Mian as General of Chariots and Cavalry to guard Feihu Pass, and the former Chancellor of Chu, Su Yi, as General stationed at Gouzhu Mountain. Other generals were deployed to safeguard various regions, including Zhang Wu in Beidi and Zhou Yafu in Xiliu, among others, to defend against the Xiongnu. After a few months, the Xiongnu retreated, and the forces withdrew.
That year, there was a severe drought followed by a locust plague. In response, Emperor Wen showed kindness to the people: he issued an edict for the feudal lords to cease paying tribute to the court, lifted restrictions on the people’s use of forests and lakes, and reduced the luxury expenditures on the palace, including the number of officials, clothing, and vehicles. Grain was distributed from the government’s stores to assist the poor, and the buying and selling of titles was allowed.
Emperor Wen had ascended to the throne twenty-three years ago, having come from the state of Dai. During his reign, there had been no increase in palace structures, gardens, or luxury items such as horses and clothes. Anything that caused hardship for the people was abolished to ease their burdens. He once considered building a high platform, but when the cost was calculated to be over a hundred pounds of gold, he realized this was excessive, saying, “A hundred pounds of gold is the equivalent of the property of ten middle-class families. I have inherited the palace left by the late emperor and often worry about dishonoring his legacy. Why, then, build such a platform?” Emperor Wen wore simple, coarse silk clothing and forbade his favored consort, Lady Shen, from wearing long, trailing garments. The curtains in their chambers were not embroidered with colorful patterns, as a reflection of his commitment to simplicity and austerity, setting an example for the people.
Emperor Wen decreed that his tomb, the Baling Mausoleum, be constructed entirely of brick, without the use of gold, silver, copper, or other precious metals. He banned large tombs to avoid burdening the people. When King Wei of Nanyue, Wei Tuo, declared himself the Martial Emperor, Emperor Wen called his brothers to court, honored them, and repaid their loyalty with kindness. Wei Tuo subsequently renounced the title of emperor and pledged allegiance to the Han Dynasty.
Despite a peace treaty between the Han and the Xiongnu, the Xiongnu violated the agreement by invading and raiding again. However, Emperor Wen issued an order to simply fortify the borders, not to send military forces deep into Xiongnu territory, as he did not wish to bring more hardship and suffering to the people.
When King Wu of Wu, Liu Bi, feigned illness and failed to attend court, Emperor Wen seized the opportunity to send him a wooden table and walking stick as a gesture of concern for his age, allowing him to be excused from the required court visit. Among his ministers, individuals like Yuan Ang, known for their directness and candor, often spoke bluntly, but Emperor Wen always tolerated their frankness and accepted their counsel. When officials such as Zhang Wu were found accepting bribes, Emperor Wen took gold from the royal treasury and personally gave it to them, hoping to make them feel shame without resorting to punishment by the law.
Emperor Wen was committed to ruling with benevolence, and as a result, the empire prospered, with flourishing rites and moral conduct. The realm enjoyed peace, and the people’s welfare was well cared for.
Seventh Year of Houyuan, Ji Hai Day (June, 164 BCE): Emperor Wen passed away at the Weiyang Palace. He left behind a final edict, saying: “I have heard that all things in the world, when they sprout and grow, eventually meet death. Death is the natural law of the world, the inevitable end of all things. Why should we grieve excessively over it? Today, people are eager to live but reluctant to die. Even in death, people go to great lengths to have extravagant burials, often draining their family fortunes and increasing their mourning rituals to the point of damaging their own health. I believe this is most unwise. Moreover, in my lifetime, I have not been virtuous and have not helped the people; now that I am dead, I do not wish to impose extended mourning that causes suffering and grief, subjecting the people to long periods of sorrow, enduring cold and heat, which damages their well-being. The grief of fathers and sons, the burden on the young and old, the disruption of meals, and the abandonment of sacrifices to the gods—this all only compounds my moral failings. How can I answer to the people for this? I have been fortunate enough to protect the ancestral temple, relying on the divine power of Heaven and Earth and the blessings of the state, to maintain peace and order for over twenty years. Yet, I am neither wise nor capable, and I have often feared my actions would dishonor the legacy left by the late emperor. Time has passed, and I have always worried about my inability to maintain the integrity of the dynasty. Now, unexpectedly, I am to be honored with offerings at the grand temple, despite my shortcomings. I feel content with this, and there is no cause for sorrow.
Let it be decreed that the officials and common people, upon receiving this edict, will observe three days of mourning, after which the mourning attire shall be removed. There should be no prohibition on marriage, sacrifices, drinking, or eating meat. Those participating in mourning should not be barefoot, and the mourning cloth should not exceed three inches in width. No vehicles, weapons, or grand displays should be made for the procession, and citizens should not be summoned to the palace to mourn. At the palace, those who must mourn should do so by crying fifteen times in the morning and evening, with no mourning allowed at other times. After burial, the mourning period will be shortened: those who should observe nine months of mourning for a major loss will observe only fifteen days; those observing five months of mourning for a minor loss will mourn for fourteen days; those observing three months of mourning for the death of a close relative will mourn for seven days. Upon completion of the prescribed mourning period, the mourning attire may be removed. Other matters not covered in this decree shall follow similar principles. This edict is to be proclaimed throughout the empire, so that all may understand my intentions. The natural features of the surrounding mountains and waters of my tomb, the Baling Mausoleum, should be preserved as they are, without alteration. The ladies of the palace, down to the lowest-ranking servants, are all to return to their families.”
The court appointed Zhongwei Zhou Yafu as General of Chariots and Cavalry, with Xuhan, Minister of the State, as General of the Army, and Zhang Wu, Langzhong Ling, as General of the Recovered Territories. A total of 16,000 soldiers were drafted from the counties near the capital, and an additional 15,000 soldiers under the Minister of the Interior were tasked with the labor of preparing the tomb for burial. These forces were placed under the command of General Zhang Wu.
Ji Si Day, Emperor Wen was buried in the Baling Mausoleum. The ministers knelt and paid their respects, offering his posthumous title, which was Emperor Xiaowen.
Crown Prince Liu Qi ascended to the throne at the Grand Temple. On Ding Wei Day, he inherited the imperial title and became the emperor.
First Year of Emperor Xiaojing (156 BCE), October: An edict was issued to the censors: “I have heard that in ancient times, the emperors who achieved the founding of a kingdom were called ‘ancestors,’ and those who governed with virtue were called ‘ancestors of the dynasty.’ They established rituals and music based on these principles. I have also heard that songs are meant to praise virtues, and dances are intended to display achievements. At the Grand Temple, sacrifices were offered and music and dances such as Wude, Wenshi, and Five Elements were performed. Similarly, at the Temple of Empress Dowager, music and dances like Wenshi and Five Elements were performed. Emperor Xiaowen governed the empire by opening gates and bridges, facilitating communication everywhere, including distant regions; he abolished the laws punishing slander, eliminated corporal punishment, rewarded the elderly, adopted orphans, and cared for the poor and childless. He cultivated the people’s virtues, refrained from receiving gifts from his subjects, and never sought selfish gains. He punished criminals without harming their families or punishing the innocent. He ended the practice of castration and released the women from the imperial harem. He was mindful of ending such cruel practices. I am not wise enough to fully comprehend Emperor Xiaowen’s virtues. These are achievements that past emperors could not match, yet Emperor Xiaowen personally enacted them. His deeds shine brightly, as if comparable to Heaven and Earth. His beneficence spread far and wide, benefiting all under heaven. His glory is like the sun and moon, yet the songs and dances performed in his honor seem inadequate to express his true greatness. This is deeply troubling to me. Therefore, we should create a Zhaode dance to glorify his virtuous deeds. Then, let the accomplishments of our ancestors be recorded in the annals of history, passed down for generations, lasting forever.”
The Chancellor Shen Tu Jia and other ministers said: “Your Majesty, your continued devotion to filial piety and your wish to honor the virtuous deeds of Emperor Xiaowen with the Zhaode dance are things we, your humble ministers, could not have thought of. We respectfully suggest that there has never been an emperor who has achieved the greatness of Emperor Gao in founding the dynasty, nor one whose virtue has surpassed that of Emperor Xiaowen in governing the empire. The temple of Emperor Gao should be established as the temple of our dynasty’s founding ancestor, and Emperor Xiaowen’s temple should be established as the temple of the second emperor. Future emperors should honor both temples. All feudal lords and ministers should pay their respects annually and offer sacrifices at the temples of both Emperor Gao and Emperor Xiaowen. We request that this be recorded in official documents and made known throughout the empire.”
Emperor Jing replied: “It is acceptable.”
Grand Historian’s Commentary: Confucius once said, “It takes thirty years of governance to achieve benevolent rule, and even the best rulers, after a century, may only overcome cruelty and eliminate punishment.” This is absolutely true. From the founding of the Han dynasty to Emperor Xiaowen’s reign, spanning more than forty years, his governance reached its peak. Emperor Xiaowen had begun plans for reforms such as adjusting the calendar and color codes, as well as conducting ritual sacrifices, but due to his humility, these were never fully completed. Could this not be the essence of benevolence?
Seventh Year of Houyuan, Ji Hai Day (June, 164 BCE): Emperor Wen passed away at the Weiyang Palace. Before his death, he left behind a final edict saying: “I have heard that all things in the world, when they begin to grow and develop, will ultimately meet death. Death is the natural law of the world, the inevitable conclusion for all things. What is there to grieve excessively about? Today, people are fond of life but reluctant to face death. Even after death, people go to great lengths to ensure lavish burials, depleting their family fortunes and increasing mourning rituals to the point of harming their health. I find this most unwise. Moreover, during my lifetime, I have not been virtuous and have not done much to help the people. Now that I am dead, I do not wish for people to endure prolonged mourning, suffering the extremes of cold and heat, and causing the families and people of the world to grieve for me. This would only further expose my moral failings, and how could I face the people? I have been fortunate enough to protect the ancestral temple, relying on the divine power of Heaven and Earth and the blessings of the state, allowing the country to remain peaceful and free of war for over twenty years. I am neither intelligent nor capable, and I have often worried that my actions might disgrace the virtues left by the late emperor. Over time, I have feared that I could not sustain the dynasty as it should be. Now, unexpectedly, I have been able to live to a ripe old age and will be honored with offerings in the great temple. For someone so lacking in wisdom like me to enjoy such an end, I consider it a good fortune, and there is no cause for sorrow.
Let it be decreed that after the edict reaches the officials and the people, there should be three days of mourning, after which mourning attire should be removed. There should be no prohibition on marriage, sacrifices, drinking, or eating meat. Those who participate in the mourning rituals should not be barefoot, and the mourning cloth should not exceed three inches in width. No displays of vehicles or weapons should be made, nor should men and women be summoned to the palace for the mourning ceremonies. Those mourning at the palace should cry fifteen times in the morning and evening, stopping once the rites are completed. Outside of these times, no crying is permitted. After the burial, the mourning period should be shortened: those observing the full nine months of mourning should mourn for only fifteen days; those observing five months of mourning for a minor loss should mourn for fourteen days; and those observing three months of mourning for a close relative should mourn for only seven days. After these periods, the mourning attire should be removed. Other matters not covered by this decree should follow similar principles. This edict is to be made known throughout the empire so that everyone may understand my intentions. The natural landscape around my tomb at Baling should remain unchanged. The ladies of the palace, including the lowest-ranked servants, should return to their families.”
The court appointed Zhongwei Zhou Yafu as General of Chariots and Cavalry, Xuhan, Minister of the State, as General of the Army, and Zhang Wu, Langzhong Ling, as General of the Recovered Territories. A total of 16,000 soldiers from nearby counties and 15,000 soldiers under the jurisdiction of the Minister of the Interior were mobilized to carry out the work of preparing the tomb, including digging and filling earth for the burial, all under General Zhang Wu’s command.
Ji Si Day, Emperor Wen was laid to rest at the Baling Mausoleum. The ministers bowed to the ground and presented his posthumous title, honoring him as Emperor Xiaowen.
Crown Prince Liu Qi ascended to the throne at the Grand Temple. On Ding Wei Day, he inherited the imperial title and became the emperor.
First Year of Emperor Xiaojing (156 BCE), October: An edict was issued to the censors: “I have heard that in ancient times, emperors who achieved the unification of the world were called ‘ancestors,’ and those who governed with virtue were called ‘founders of the dynasty.’ They established rituals and music according to these principles. It is said that songs are meant to praise virtues, and dances are meant to showcase accomplishments. In the Grand Temple, wine sacrifices and performances of songs and dances like Wude, Wenshi, and Five Elements were made. Similarly, at the Temple of Empress Dowager, wine sacrifices and performances of Wenshi and Five Elements were made. Emperor Xiaowen, in his governance of the empire, opened gates and bridges, facilitating travel and communication across all regions, even the remote ones. He abolished the laws punishing slander, eliminated corporal punishment, rewarded the elderly, adopted orphans, and cared for the poor and childless, thus nurturing the people. He refrained from all personal desires, never accepting gifts from officials, and sought no personal gain. When dealing with criminals, he did not punish their families or execute the innocent. He abolished the practice of castration and released the women from the harem. He considered the severing of bloodlines to be a grave matter.
I am not wise enough to fully understand the greatness of Emperor Xiaowen. These are achievements that past emperors could not accomplish, yet Emperor Xiaowen implemented them personally. His deeds shine with unmatched brilliance, as if comparable to the very forces of Heaven and Earth. His benevolence has spread throughout the land, and no one has been left untouched by his kindness. His light shines as brightly as the sun and moon. Yet the music and dances performed in his honor seem inadequate to reflect his true greatness, and I feel deeply unsettled by this. Therefore, we should create a Zhaode dance to glorify his virtues. His contributions to the dynasty should be recorded in the annals of history, passed down for future generations, enduring forever.”
The Chancellor Shen Tu Jia and other ministers responded: “Your Majesty, your continued devotion to filial piety and your desire to honor Emperor Xiaowen’s great deeds with the Zhaode dance are things we, your humble ministers, could not have thought of. We respectfully suggest that no emperor in history has achieved the greatness of Emperor Gao in founding the dynasty, nor has any emperor governed with greater virtue than Emperor Xiaowen. Therefore, the temple of Emperor Gao should serve as the ancestral temple of our dynasty, and the temple of Emperor Xiaowen should serve as the temple of our second emperor. Future emperors should annually honor both temples. The feudal lords and ministers should also each build temples to honor Emperor Xiaowen in their own regions. Each year, during court sacrifices, the feudal lords and lords should send envoys to the capital to accompany the emperor in the rituals. These matters should be documented and announced to the people.”
Emperor Jing responded: “This is acceptable.”
Grand Historian’s Commentary: Confucius once said, “It takes thirty years of governance to achieve benevolent rule, and even the best rulers, after a hundred years, may only overcome cruelty and abolish capital punishment.” This statement is indeed true. From the founding of the Han dynasty to the reign of Emperor Xiaowen, spanning more than forty years, the virtue of governance reached its peak. Emperor Xiaowen had begun reforms such as adjusting the calendar, color codes, and conducting grand rituals, but due to his humility, these were never fully completed. Could this not be the true essence of benevolence?