The ancestors of Han(Warring_States) shared the same surname as the Zhou kings—Ji. Later, their descendants served the state of Jin and were enfeoffed in Hanyuan, earning the title of Han Wuzi. After three generations, Han Jue was born, adopting “Han” as his clan name in accordance with his fiefdom.
In the third year of Duke Jing of Jin (597 BCE), the Jin state’s Minister of Justice, Tu Anjia, plotted a rebellion under the pretext of punishing Zhao Dun’s treasonous faction. Though Zhao Dun had long passed, Tu Anjia sought to execute his son, Zhao Shuo. Han Jue opposed this but was ignored. He then warned Zhao Shuo, urging him to flee. Zhao Shuo, however, stated, “If you can ensure that the Zhao lineage does not perish, I will die without regret.” Han Jue solemnly promised. When Tu Anjia carried out the massacre against the Zhao clan, Han Jue feigned illness and refused to leave his residence. Meanwhile, Cheng Ying and Gongsun Jiu secretly sheltered the orphaned Zhao Wu, a fact Han Jue was aware of.
In the eleventh year of Duke Jing of Jin (589 BCE), Han Jue, alongside Xi Ke, led an army of 800 war chariots to attack the state of Qi. They defeated Duke Qing of Qi in the Battle of An, capturing the Qi general Feng Choufu. From this point forward, Jin formally established the Six Ministers system, with Han Jue holding one of the ministerial positions under the title of Xianzi.
By the seventeenth year of Duke Jing’s reign, the duke fell ill. A divination revealed that a discontented descendant of a meritorious statesman was the source of misfortune. Han Jue extolled the contributions of Zhao Cui (also known as Zhao Cuī), lamenting that his lineage had been severed. Moved, Duke Jing inquired whether Zhao Cui had any surviving descendants. Han Jue then introduced Zhao Wu, prompting the duke to restore the Zhao family’s original lands and titles, ensuring their continuity.
In the seventh year of Duke Dao of Jin (566 BCE), Han Xianzi retired from his post. Upon his passing, his son, Xuanzi, inherited his title and relocated to Zhouyi.
By the fourteenth year of Duke Ping of Jin (544 BCE), Ji Zha of Wu visited Jin as an envoy. He prophesied, “The governance of Jin will ultimately fall into the hands of the Han, Wei, and Zhao clans.” His prediction proved astute. In the twelfth year of Duke Qing of Jin (514 BCE), Han Xuanzi, along with the Zhao and Wei families, partitioned ten counties that had belonged to the Ziqi and Yangshe clans. Later, in the fifteenth year of Duke Ding of Jin (497 BCE), Han Xuanzi and Zhao Jianzi waged war against the Fan and Zhonghang clans. Upon Xuanzi’s death, his son, Zhenzi, succeeded him and relocated to Pingyang.
Following Zhenzi’s passing, his son Jianzi assumed leadership, followed by his son Zhuangzi, and later by his son Kangzi. Han Kangzi, alongside Zhao Xiangzi and Wei Huanzi, decisively defeated Zhibo and divided his territory. Their combined lands now surpassed those of other feudal lords.
Upon Han Kangzi’s death, his son Wuzi ascended the throne. In the second year of his reign, he launched a campaign against Zheng, assassinating its ruler, Duke You of Zheng. By the sixteenth year of his rule, Han Wuzi passed away, and his son Jinghou succeeded him.
In the first year of Han Jinghou’s reign (408 BCE), he waged war on Zheng and seized Yongqiu. By the second year, the Zheng army defeated the Zhao forces at Fushu.
In the sixth year of his rule (403 BCE), Han, alongside Zhao and Wei, was officially recognized as a feudal state.
By the ninth year of his reign, Zheng besieged Yangdi, a city in Han’s domain. Jinghou later passed away, and his son Liehou, Han Qu, succeeded him.
In the third year of Liehou’s rule (397 BCE), Nie Zheng assassinated the Han chancellor, Xia Lei. By the ninth year, Qin invaded Han’s territory of Yiyang, capturing six counties. In the thirteenth year, Liehou passed away, and his son Wenhou took the throne—the same year that Wei Wenhou died.
In the second year of Han Wenhou’s reign (385 BCE), Han launched an attack on Zheng, seizing Yangcheng. He then advanced against Song, reaching Pengcheng and capturing the Song ruler. By the seventh year, he engaged Qi in battle, pushing as far as Sangqiu. At this time, Zheng rebelled against Jin. In the ninth year, Han continued its campaigns against Qi, reaching Lingqiu. In the tenth year, Han Wenhou passed away, and his son Ai Hou succeeded him.
In the first year of Han Ai Hou’s reign (376 BCE), Han, along with Zhao and Wei, officially partitioned the state of Jin. By the second year, Han conquered Zheng and moved its capital to Xinzheng.
However, in the sixth year, Han Yan assassinated Ai Hou, leading to the ascension of Ai Hou’s son, Yi Hou.
During Yi Hou’s second year (369 BCE), the Wei army defeated Han at the Battle of Maling. In the fifth year, Han’s ruler met with King Hui of Wei in Zhaiyang. In the ninth year, Han suffered another defeat at the hands of Wei at the Huai River. By the twelfth year, Yi Hou passed away, and his son Zhao Hou took the throne.
In the first year of Marquis Zhao’s reign of Han (358 BC), the Qin army vanquished the Han forces at Xishan. In the second year, the State of Song seized Han’s strategic Huangchi, while the State of Wei captured Zhu Yi. By the sixth year, the Han army had launched a campaign against the Eastern Zhou state, conquering the strongholds of Lingguan and Xingqiu.
In the eighth year of his reign, Shen Buhai was appointed Prime Minister of Han. Employing the art of statecraft and the rigorous doctrines of Legalism, he established domestic stability, thereby deterring neighboring feudal lords from encroaching upon Han’s territory.
In the tenth year, Han Ji assassinated the sovereign, Duke Dao. The following year, Marquis Zhao himself journeyed to the State of Qin. In the twenty-second year, Shen Buhai passed away, and two years later, the Qin army captured the city of Yiyang from Han.
In the twenty-fifth year, a severe drought struck, and an imposing city gate was erected. Qu Yijiu remarked,
“Marquis Zhao will never be able to depart through that gate. Why? Because the timing is inauspicious. When I refer to ‘timing,’ I do not merely mean the clock, but rather the natural ebb and flow of fortune. Although Marquis Zhao has enjoyed favorable times before, he did not then construct such a grand gate. Last year, Qin seized Yiyang, and now, amidst drought, instead of alleviating the dire plight of the people, extravagant construction persists. This is the epitome of indulging in luxury during decline.”
In the twenty-sixth year, the magnificent gate was completed, and Marquis Zhao passed away—indeed, he never emerged through that very gate. His son then ascended the throne as King Xuanhui.
In the fifth year of King Xuanhui’s reign (328 BC), Zhang Yi was appointed Prime Minister of Qin. By the eighth year, the Wei forces had defeated the Han general Han Ju. In the eleventh year, the sovereign’s title was elevated to “King,” and he held a meeting with the King of Zhao at Qushu. Four years later, the Qin army advanced against Han and routed its forces at Yanling.
In the sixteenth year of King Xuanhui’s rule, the Qin army defeated the Han at Xiuyu and, at Zhuoze, captured several Han generals along with Shen Cha. Alarmed by these setbacks, Chancellor Gong Zhong advised the Han King:
“Alliances are inherently unreliable. Qin has long coveted an expedition against Chu. Your majesty might, through Zhang Yi, seek reconciliation with Qin by ceding a prominent city and outfitting your troops with proper armor and weaponry—thereby joining Qin’s southern campaign against Chu. This maneuver, sacrificing a minor asset for a double gain, is most opportune.”
The Han King assented and prepared to journey westward to negotiate with Qin. However, when word of these developments reached the King of Chu, he was stricken with dread and summoned Chen Zhen to brief him. Chen Zhen explained:
“Qin’s designs on attacking Chu are long-standing, and now they have acquired a notable city from Han and amassed sufficient arms and armor. Should Qin and Han combine forces against Chu, it would fulfill Qin’s most fervent, even ritualistic, ambitions—dooming Chu to inevitable invasion. Your majesty, follow my counsel: first, heighten national vigilance by mobilizing troops under the pretext of coming to Han’s aid, positioning chariots along the roads; then dispatch emissaries furnished with ample vehicles and lavish gifts, so as to convince Han of your genuine rescue. Even if the Han King ultimately ignores our advice, he will still be indebted to your magnanimity and refrain from mustering against Chu—thus precluding any dangerous Qin–Han collusion. Conversely, if Han adheres to our counsel and abandons its overtures to Qin, Qin will surely be incensed, deepening its enmity toward Han; and if Han later seeks an alliance with Chu in the south, it will undoubtedly treat Qin with disdain. In this manner, we can exploit the inherent discord between Qin and Han to avert calamity for Chu.”
The King of Chu responded, “Excellent!” Accordingly, he ordered a nationwide reinforcement of defenses, mobilized his troops under the guise of aiding Han, and arrayed chariots along the roads. He then dispatched envoys, well-equipped with vehicles and abundant gifts, to Han. One such envoy declared to the Han King:
“Though our nation is modest in size, we have committed our entire military. We hope that you may engage Qin at your leisure, for our sovereign shall see that the Chu army fights to the death on behalf of Han.”
Delighted by this pledge, the Han King ceased Chancellor Gong Zhong’s negotiations with Qin. Yet Gong Zhong cautioned:
“This cannot stand. It is Qin that has intruded upon us with sheer might, while Chu offers but nominal rescue. Should our king rely on Chu’s empty assurances to sever ties with the formidable Qin, he will be universally ridiculed. Moreover, Chu and Han are not natural allies, nor have we long been bound by a pact against Qin. The signs of a Qin–Han coalition against Chu are already manifest, and Chu’s professed aid is surely merely Chen Zhen’s stratagem. Besides, our designs have already been disclosed to Qin; to reverse course now would be tantamount to deceiving them. To trust too readily in Chu’s counsel while misleading Qin is a grave error that will surely be regretted.”
The Han King, however, spurning this advice, ultimately severed all relations with Qin. Incensed, Qin augmented its forces and launched an assault on Han, plunging the two states into a fierce war, while Chu’s promised reinforcements never arrived. In the nineteenth year, the Qin army decisively defeated the Han forces at Anmen, leaving Han no recourse but to dispatch Crown Prince Cang as a hostage to Qin in a bid for peace.
In the twenty-first year of King Xuanhui’s reign, Han, in alliance with Qin, launched an offensive against Chu, defeating the Chu general Qu Gai and, at Danyang, decimating eight Chu military contingents. That same year, King Xuanhui passed away, and Crown Prince Cang ascended the throne as King Xiang.
In the fourth year of King Xiang’s reign (308 BCE), he met with King Wu of Qin at Linjin. That autumn, the state of Qin sent Gan Mao to attack Yiyang in Han_(Warring_States). In the fifth year, Qin successfully captured Yiyang, slaying sixty thousand Han_(Warring_States)n soldiers. Shortly after, King Wu of Qin passed away. In the sixth year, Qin returned Wusui to Han_(Warring_States). By the ninth year, Qin once again seized Wusui from Han_(Warring_States). In the tenth year, the Crown Prince Ying of Han_(Warring_States) paid homage to the King of Qin before returning to his homeland. In the eleventh year, Qin forces launched another campaign against Han_(Warring_States), capturing Rang City. During the same period, Han_(Warring_States) and Qin formed an alliance to invade Chu, ultimately defeating the Chu general Tang Mei.
In the twelfth year of King Xiang’s reign, Crown Prince Ying passed away. A fierce struggle ensued between Prince Jiu and Prince Jishi over the title of heir. At the time, Jishi was held as a hostage in the state of Chu. Su advised Prince Jiu, saying, “Jishi has been detained in Chu for some time, and the King of Chu is eager to send him back to Han_(Warring_States). Currently, over a hundred thousand Chu soldiers are stationed north of Fangcheng Mountain. Why not persuade the King of Chu to establish a walled city of ten thousand households near Yongshi City? The King of Han_(Warring_States) will surely dispatch troops to defend Yongshi, and you will be appointed as their commander. Seizing this opportunity, you can leverage the combined forces of Han_(Warring_States) and Chu to welcome Jishi back, ensuring that he remains forever loyal to you. In gratitude, he will likely grant you control over the border regions between Han_(Warring_States) and Chu.” Prince Jiu accepted this counsel.
The Chu army laid siege to Yongshi, prompting Han_(Warring_States) to seek aid from Qin. However, Qin refrained from dispatching troops and instead sent Gongsun Mei to Han_(Warring_States). Gongzhong questioned Gongsun Mei, “Do you believe Qin will come to Han_(Warring_States)’s aid?” Gongsun Mei replied, “The King of Qin has declared, ‘We will advance from Nanzheng and Lantian, preparing to march into Chu and await your forces there.’ Yet, I fear our armies will not unite in time.” Gongzhong asked, “Do you truly believe this?” Gongsun Mei responded, “The King of Qin is undoubtedly employing Zhang Yi’s former strategy. When King Wei of Chu invaded Wei, Zhang Yi advised the King of Qin: ‘If Qin and Chu jointly attack Wei and Wei is defeated, it will naturally seek refuge under Chu, drawing Han_(Warring_States) along with it. Consequently, Qin will find itself isolated. Instead, we should feign an advance to mislead them, allowing Wei and Chu to exhaust each other, at which point Qin can seize territories west of the Yellow River before withdrawing.’ Presently, Qin outwardly aligns itself with Han_(Warring_States), yet secretly maintains goodwill with Chu. Should you wait for Qin’s reinforcements, you may be lured into battle with Chu prematurely. Chu, knowing that Qin will not genuinely aid Han_(Warring_States), will confidently engage you. If you prevail against Chu, Qin will capitalize on your victory, asserting dominance over Chu before retreating triumphantly to the Three Rivers region. However, if you fail, Chu will blockade the Three Rivers, cutting off your retreat. This concerns me deeply. The Qin envoy, Sima Geng, has traveled to the Chu capital of Ying three times, while the Qin Chancellor, Gan Mao, has met with the Chu Chancellor, Zhao Yu, at Shangyu. They publicly declare their intention to recall the military seals for the joint Han_(Warring_States)n-Chu forces, but in truth, they seem to have struck a covert agreement.”
Gongzhong, alarmed, asked, “What should we do?” Gongsun Mei advised, “You must prioritize Han_(Warring_States)’s survival before placing any reliance on Qin. First, secure Han_(Warring_States)’s own defense; only then can you counter Qin’s schemes. You should quickly forge an alliance with Qi and Chu—both states will entrust their affairs to you. Your primary concern is Zhang Yi’s deceptive strategies, but disregarding Qin entirely is equally unwise.” Following this, the Chu forces lifted the siege of Yongshi.
Su Dai later approached Mi Rong, the younger brother of the Queen Dowager of Qin, and suggested, “Gongshu Boying fears that Qin will facilitate Jishi’s return to Han_(Warring_States). Why not intercede with Chu to have Jishi released? If Chu refuses to return him, Gongshu Boying will realize that neither Qin nor Chu truly values Jishi, prompting him to solidify an alliance between Han_(Warring_States), Qin, and Chu. Once this is established, Qin and Chu can use Han_(Warring_States) to pressure Wei, preventing Wei from allying with Qi and thereby isolating Qi. At that point, you could propose to Qin that Chu transfer Jishi to them instead. If Chu declines, it will alienate Han_(Warring_States), forcing Han_(Warring_States) to rely on Qi and Wei to besiege Chu. In response, Chu will have no choice but to seek your favor. With both Qin and Chu vying for your support, you will wield great influence over Han_(Warring_States). Gongshu Boying, in gratitude, will offer you Han_(Warring_States)’s unwavering allegiance.” As a result, Jishi never returned to Han_(Warring_States), and Prince Jiu was officially designated as the Crown Prince. Soon after, the Kings of Qi and Wei traveled to Han_(Warring_States).
In the fourteenth year of King Xiang’s reign, Han_(Warring_States), in alliance with Qi and Wei, launched an assault on Qin, advancing as far as Hangu Pass, where they established a military stronghold. By the sixteenth year, Qin ceded the lands beyond the Yellow River and Wusui back to Han_(Warring_States). After King Xiang’s death, Crown Prince Jiu ascended the throne, becoming King Xi.
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In the third year of King Xi of Han_(Warring_States) (293 BCE), he dispatched General Gongsun Xi to lead the combined forces of Zhou and Wei in an assault against Qin. However, the Han army suffered a devastating defeat, losing 240,000 troops, and Gongsun Xi was captured at Yique. By the fifth year, Qin had seized Wan City from Han. The following year, Han ceded a 200-li stretch of land in Wusui to Qin. In the tenth year, Qin forces routed the Han army at Mount Xia.
By the twelfth year, King Xi of Han_(Warring_States) met with King Zhao of Qin in the Western Zhou region and aided Qin in its military campaign against Qi. Qi suffered a crushing defeat, and King Min of Qi was forced into exile. In the fourteenth year, King Xi and the Qin ruler convened between the territories of the Eastern and Western Zhou states.
In the twenty-first year, General Bao Yuan led Han(Warring_States) reinforcements to assist Wei against Qin but was decisively beaten, fleeing to Kaifeng. By the twenty-third year, Zhao and Wei launched an offensive against Huayang, a strategic region of Han. Desperate, Han pleaded with Qin for aid, but Qin did not respond. The Han Chancellor urged the ailing statesman Chen Shi to travel to Qin overnight to seek help. Upon arrival, Chen Shi met with the powerful Qin minister, Marquis Rang, Wei Ran.
Marquis Rang sneered, “Now that you’re in dire straits, you’ve come running to us?”
Chen Shi replied calmly, “The situation is not yet desperate.”
Angered, Marquis Rang retorted, “If that’s true, why would your king send you as an envoy? Every Han(Warring_States)diplomat who comes here is begging for assistance, yet you claim there’s no urgency—why?”
Chen Shi responded, “If Han(Warring_States) were truly in a crisis, we would have no choice but to shift our allegiance elsewhere. Since we are not yet at that point, I am here today.”
Impressed by this reasoning, Marquis Rang declared, “No need to see the Qin king—I will deploy troops immediately to assist Han(Warring_States).” Within eight days, Qin’s army arrived at Huayang and decisively defeated the Zhao and Wei forces.
That same year, King Xi passed away, and his son, King Huanhui, ascended the throne.
The Reign of King Huanhui of Han(Warring_States)
In the first year of King Huanhui’s reign (272 BCE), Han launched an attack against Yan. By the ninth year, Qin captured Xingcheng from Han and established fortifications along the Fen River. In the tenth year, Qin launched an offensive against Han at Mount Taihang. During this conflict, the governor of Shangdang, a crucial Han territory, defected and surrendered the region to Zhao instead of Qin.
By the fourteenth year, Qin retaliated by seizing control of Shangdang from Zhao. At the Battle of Changping, Qin annihilated Zhao Kuo’s army, executing 400,000 Zhao soldiers. In the seventeenth year, Qin captured Yangcheng and Fushu from Han.
In the twenty-second year, King Zhao of Qin passed away. Two years later, Qin conquered Chenggao and Xingyang, further eroding Han’s territory. By the twenty-sixth year, Qin had fully annexed the Shangdang region. By the twenty-ninth year, Qin had seized thirteen additional cities from Han.
In the thirty-fourth year, King Huanhui died, and his son, King An of Han, succeeded him.
The Fall of Han(Warring_States)
By the fifth year of King An’s reign (234 BCE), Qin’s relentless offensives pushed Han to the brink of collapse. In a desperate bid to salvage the kingdom, Han dispatched the renowned legalist philosopher Han Fei as an envoy to Qin. However, Qin not only detained him but later executed him.
In the ninth year, Qin forces captured King An of Han, officially annexing the entirety of Han’s territory and reorganizing it into the Yingchuan Commandery. With this, the state of Han was extinguished.
The Historian’s Commentary
The Grand Historian Sima Qian remarked:
“Han Jue once moved Duke Jing of Jin to preserve the bloodline of the orphaned Zhao Wu, thus enabling Cheng Ying and Gongsun Jiu to uphold their great righteousness—a rare and noble act of unseen virtue. The House of Han, though never achieving extraordinary military feats within Jin, nevertheless endured as a feudal power for several generations, standing on par with the mighty Zhao and Wei clans. This was truly remarkable.”