The progenitor of the Zhao clan and the people of Qin share the same ancestral root. This lineage was transmitted to Zhongyan, who once drove the chariot for Emperor Taiwu of Yin. His descendant, Feilian, had two sons. One son, named Elai, served King Zhou and was later slain by the Zhou; his progeny became the Qin people. Elai’s younger brother, Jisheng, became the forefather of the Zhao.
Jisheng begot Mengzeng, who earned the favor of King Cheng of Zhou—this is the famed Zhaigao Lang. Lang sired Hengfu, who in turn fathered Zao Fu. Zao Fu won the favor of King Mu of Zhou. He selected eight fine steeds, and along with the renowned horses stolen from the Peach Grove—such as Li, Hualiao, and Luer—presented them to King Mu. Impressed, the king appointed Zao Fu to drive the chariot on a western tour, during which he met the Queen Mother of the West and was so enraptured that he almost forgot to return. Soon thereafter, as King Xuyan rebelled, King Mu, riding his chariot at a pace of a thousand miles per day, decisively defeated him. As a reward, the city of Zhao was bestowed upon Zao Fu, marking the beginning of the Zhao lineage.
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From Zao Fu, the lineage continued through six generations to Yan Fu, styled Gongzhong, who during the reign of King Xuan of Zhou drove the chariot in the campaign against the Rong. In the fierce battle at Qianmu, Yan Fu once extricated King Xuan from peril. Yan Fu begot Shudai. During Shudai’s time, as King You of Zhou indulged in debauchery and misrule, Shudai left the Zhou court for the state of Jin, serving Duke Wen of Jin, and thus initiated the Zhao clan in Jin.
From Shudai onward, the Zhao clan flourished. After five generations, Zhao Su emerged. In the sixteenth year of Duke Xian of Jin (661 BC), when Jin campaigned against the states of Huo, Wei, and Geng, Zhao Su served as a general in the expedition against Huo. Huo Gong fled to the state of Qi. That same year, Jin was stricken by a severe drought, and the diviners declared, “The mountain deity of Mount Tai of Huo is inciting mischief.” Consequently, Zhao Su was dispatched to Qi to recall the ruler of Huo, restoring his authority to preside over the sacred rites at Mount Tai of Huo, which then brought bountiful harvests back to Jin. In gratitude, Duke Xian granted the land of Geng to Zhao Su.
Zhao Su begot Gongmeng in a year coinciding with the first year of Duke Min of Lu (661 BC). Gongmeng sired Zhao Shuai (pronounced “cuī”), styled Ziyu.
Zhao Shuai, having served Duke Xian of Jin and several of his sons as an augur, repeatedly encountered unfavorable omens—until the divination performed in the service of Prince Chong’er proved auspicious, prompting him to serve Chong’er. Following the turmoil caused by Li Ji’s rebellion, Prince Chong’er fled to the Di lands, with Zhao Shuai accompanying him. There, the Di attacked Qiao Gao Ru, capturing two young women. The Di chieftain gave the younger woman in marriage to Chong’er, and the elder to Zhao Shuai, who then begot Zhao Dun. Earlier, while in Jin, Zhao Shuai’s principal wife had borne him Zhao Tong, Zhao Kuo, and Zhao Yingqi. After nineteen years of exile with Chong’er, Zhao Shuai was finally able to return to Jin. Upon Chong’er’s accession as Duke Wen of Jin, Zhao Shuai was appointed as the Chief Minister at Yuancheng, overseeing state affairs. It is recorded in the “Annals of Jin” that Duke Wen’s return and rise to power owed much to Zhao Shuai’s stratagems.
After Zhao Shuai’s return to Jin, his original wife insisted that his Di wife be brought back and that her son, Zhao Dun, be recognized as the legitimate heir, relegating his three sons to subordinate positions. In the sixth year of Duke Xiang of Jin (662 BC), Zhao Shuai passed away and was posthumously honored as Chengji.
Two years after Zhao Dun assumed state affairs, following the demise of Duke Xiang and during the minority of Crown Prince Yigao, Zhao Dun, troubled by the nation’s misfortunes, sought to install Duke Xiang’s brother, Yong, as ruler. Yong was then in Qin, prompting an envoy to fetch him. The crown prince’s mother, tearfully lamenting day and night, implored Zhao Dun, “What sin did my late husband commit that you would forsake his rightful son in favor of another?” Distressed by these words and fearing an uprising by her kinsmen and officials, Zhao Dun established the crown prince—who would become Duke Ling—and dispatched troops to intercept the envoys returning with Yong from Qin. Upon Duke Ling’s enthronement, Zhao Dun further consolidated his grip on Jin’s affairs.
In the fourteenth year of Duke Ling’s reign, Zhao Dun grew increasingly imperious. Despite Zhao Dun’s numerous admonitions, Duke Ling remained obstinate. On one occasion, while dining on bear paws insufficiently cooked, Duke Ling ordered the execution of the kitchen official, having his body removed for display—a scene witnessed by Zhao Dun. This incident instilled such fear in Duke Ling that he resolved to eliminate Zhao Dun. Known for his benevolence—once having given food to a destitute man collapsed beneath a mulberry tree, who later repaid the favor by shielding Zhao Dun—Zhao Dun managed to escape. Before he could flee beyond the borders, Zhao Dun assassinated Duke Ling, enthroning Duke Xiang’s brother, Heitun, as the new ruler—Duke Cheng of Jin. Zhao Dun then resumed his role as the chief statesman. Critics later derided Zhao Dun for evading punishment for his flight and return, prompting historical records to note that “Zhao Dun killed his sovereign.” During the reign of Duke Jing of Jin, Zhao Dun died and was posthumously honored as Xuanmeng, with his son Zhao Shuo inheriting the title.
In the third year of Duke Jing of Jin’s reign (597 BC), Zhao Shuo led Jin’s auxiliary forces to rescue the State of Zheng, engaging King Zhuang of Chu in battle along the banks of the Yellow River. During this campaign, Zhao Shuo also wed the elder sister of Duke Cheng of Jin.
That very same year, the minister Tu’an Jia resolved to eradicate the Zhao clan. In earlier times, when Zhao Dun was still alive, he had once dreamed that his uncle cradled him by the waist and wept bitterly—with anguish so profound that it soon gave way to uproarious laughter and clapping as he burst into song. Troubled by this vision, Zhao Dun performed divination; the tortoise shell’s burning fissures appeared intermittently before mysteriously healing. A court historian of Zhao named Yuan interpreted the omen: “This portent is most inauspicious—not destined to befall you, but rather your son, as the consequence of your misdeeds. By the time of your grandson, the Zhao family’s fortunes will have dwindled even further.”
Tu’an Jia, who had once enjoyed the favor of Duke Ling and now served as Minister of Justice under Duke Jing, was scheming to incite rebellion. To this end, he first sought to punish those traitors responsible for the murder of Duke Ling, thereby implicating Zhao Dun. At the same time, he issued orders to all the generals: “Although Zhao Dun was unaware of these events, he remains the chief conspirator. How can we tolerate a man whose descendants continue to serve in the court after he has committed regicide? I charge you all to execute them!”
The loyal official Han Jue objected, saying, “When Duke Ling was slain, Zhao Dun was away, and our late sovereign deemed him blameless—thus he was spared. Now, to execute his descendants is not in keeping with our sovereign’s will but constitutes wanton slaughter, and such lawlessness only breeds further disorder. For ministers to contrive significant plots without informing their ruler is to show flagrant disregard for the monarch.”
Tu’an Jia ignored Han Jue’s remonstrance. Acting on Han Jue’s advice, he urged Zhao Shuo to flee immediately. Yet Zhao Shuo refused, declaring, “You must ensure that the Zhao lineage endures; if I am to die, I shall do so without regret.” Honoring his pledge, Han Jue pretended to be ill and thus remained at home. Meanwhile, without seeking the sovereign’s leave, Tu’an Jia, with the aid of his generals, boldly attacked the Zhao household in the lower palace—killing Zhao Shuo along with Zhao Tong, Zhao Kuo, and Zhao Ying Qi, and thereby annihilating the entire Zhao clan.
Zhao Shuo’s wife—the elder sister of Duke Cheng—was with child when the calamity struck, and she managed to escape to the sanctuary of Duke Jing’s palace. One of Zhao Shuo’s retainers, Gongsun Chuju, reproached his friend Cheng Ying, “Why do you not choose death?” Cheng Ying replied, “Since Zhao Shuo’s wife is carrying his child, if fortune grants us a son, I shall raise him; but if it is a daughter, then I shall at once embrace death.”
Not long after, Zhao Shuo’s wife gave birth to a boy. When news of this reached Tu’an Jia, he stormed into the palace to search for the infant. The officials, seeking to confirm the demise of the Zhao line, placed the baby in a pair of trousers and intoned, “If the Zhao clan is indeed extinguished, then let your cries resound; if not, remain silent.” Yet as the search advanced, the child uttered not a sound.
After narrowly escaping danger, Cheng Ying confided in Gongsun Chuju, “Today’s search has failed, but surely they will come again. What shall we do?” Gongsun Chuju remarked, “What is more difficult: nurturing an orphan or embracing death?” Cheng Ying answered, “Death comes easily, but raising an orphan is an arduous task indeed.” Then Gongsun Chuju declared, “Our late Zhao sovereign was not unkind to you; you must rise to this challenge, while I shall undertake the easier task—allow me to sacrifice myself!”
Thus, the two contrived to procure an infant from another household, swathed him in an exquisite floral quilt, and conceal him deep within the mountains as a decoy. Later, Cheng Ying emerged from the remote hideaway and feigned incompetence before the generals, proclaiming, “I, Cheng Ying, am utterly inadequate to rear the Zhao orphan; if anyone can offer me a thousand pieces of gold, I will reveal the hiding place of the Zhao heir.” Delighted by his offer, the generals consented and dispatched troops to apprehend Gongsun Chuju.
Feigning indignation, Gongsun Chuju cried out, “Cheng Ying, you wretch! In the crisis at the lower palace you refused to die and instead conspired with me to conceal the Zhao orphan—and now you betray our pact! Even if you cannot care for him, how can you bear to sell him out?” Clutching the infant, he cried, “Heavens above! What crime has the Zhao orphan committed? Spare him, and let only I, Gongsun Chuju, be executed!” The generals, unmoved by his pleas, immediately put both Gongsun Chuju and the decoy to death. Convinced that the Zhao orphan had truly perished, they rejoiced; yet the genuine Zhao heir still lived, and Cheng Ying ultimately withdrew with him into the hidden depths of the mountains.
Fifteen years later, as Duke Jing of Jin lay gravely ill, he ordered an augury. The divination revealed that the descendants of the illustrious lineage were fated to misfortune, and ominous signs had manifested. Perplexed, the duke inquired of Han Jue, who, knowing that the Zhao orphan still survived, replied:
“Among the descendants of the great enterprise, it is none other than the Zhao clan whose bloodline in Jin has been severed. The subsequent generations descending from Zhongyan now bear the surname Ying. Those of the Zhongyan branch—with faces like men and beaks like birds—once graced the world to aid Emperor Taiwu of Yin, and their descendants who served several of the Zhou sovereigns were celebrated for their virtues. Later, during the dissolute reigns of Kings Li and You, when all seemed lost, Shu Dai departed the Zhou dynasty for Jin, serving our late Duke Wen and continuing through Duke Cheng; for generations, they established monumental achievements and maintained an unbroken lineage. Now, only because Your Majesty has extinguished the Zhao clan do the people of Jin lament their loss, and thus the augury has borne witness to this calamity. I beg you, reconsider your course!”
Duke Jing then asked, “Do the Zhao have any surviving descendants?” Han Jue revealed the entire truth. Consequently, Duke Jing, in consultation with Han Jue, resolved to honor the surviving Zhao orphan by first summoning him and concealing him within the palace.
When the generals entered to inquire after Duke Jing’s health, the duke, bolstered by Han Jue’s numerous attendants, compelled them to meet the Zhao orphan. The orphan, named Zhao Wu, was presented before them. With no other recourse, the generals declared, “During the lower palace upheaval, it was Tu’an Jia who incited the revolt—masquerading under the sovereign’s name and issuing orders to the ministers. Had it not been for Your Majesty’s illness, we, as ministers, would have welcomed the Zhao descendants. Now, in light of your command, it is indeed the wish of all the ministers!”
At that moment, Zhao Wu and Cheng Ying prostrated themselves in gratitude before each general. In turn, the generals allied with Cheng Ying and Zhao Wu to launch an assault against Tu’an Jia, ruthlessly annihilating his entire family. Duke Jing then restored to Zhao Wu the fiefdom that had once belonged to the Zhao clan.
When Zhao Wu came of age and completed the capping ceremony, signifying his transition into adulthood, Cheng Ying bid farewell to the noble ministers. He then turned to Zhao Wu and solemnly declared, “During the upheaval at Xiagong, every man was prepared to sacrifice his life. It was not that I could not die—I chose to live so that I could ensure the survival of the Zhao lineage. Now that you have grown, inherited your ancestral title, and reclaimed your rightful position, my duty is fulfilled. I must now go to the underworld and report this to Zhao Xuan and Gongsun Chujiu.”
Overcome with sorrow, Zhao Wu knelt and wept, pleading, “I would rather endure hardship for the rest of my life than part with you. How can you bear to leave me behind?”
Cheng Ying shook his head. “This was my solemn vow. He entrusted me with this mission, believing I could see it through, and thus he departed before me. If I do not reunite with him now, it would mean my task remains unfinished.” With that, he took his own life.
In deep mourning, Zhao Wu observed three years of filial piety for Cheng Ying. He allocated land for his memorial and ensured that seasonal offerings were made, generation after generation, without end.
Eleven years after the Zhao family’s restoration, Duke Li of Jin executed three noblemen of the Xi clan. Fearing for his own safety, Luan Shu turned against the duke, assassinating him and installing Duke Dao, the great-grandson of Duke Xiang, on the throne. From that moment, the power of the aristocratic ministers in Jin grew ever stronger.
Zhao Wu continued the Zhao lineage for twenty-seven years before Duke Ping of Jin ascended the throne. In the twelfth year of Duke Ping’s reign (546 BCE), Zhao Wu became the Chief Minister of Jin. The following year, Prince Ji of Yanling, a noble from the state of Wu, visited Jin and remarked, “In time, the governance of Jin will fall into the hands of the descendants of Zhao Wu, Han Xuanzi, and Wei Xianzi.”
After Zhao Wu passed away, he was posthumously honored as Viscount Wen.
Viscount Wen’s son was Zhao Jingshu. During Jingshu’s lifetime, Duke Jing of Qi sent Yan Ying as an envoy to Jin. In a conversation with Uncle Xiang of Jin, Yan Ying foresaw, “The rule of Qi will one day belong to the Tian clan.” Uncle Xiang replied, “And in Jin, power will ultimately rest with the Six Great Clans. They act with unchecked authority, yet our sovereign remains oblivious to the looming threat.”
When Zhao Jingshu died, his son Zhao Yang inherited the family name—he would later be known as Zhao Jianzi.
During Zhao Jianzi’s tenure, in the ninth year of Duke Qing of Jin (517 BCE), Jianzi gathered the feudal lords and stationed them along the borders of the Zhou royal domain. The following year, he escorted King Jing of Zhou back to his capital, where the king had previously fled due to a power struggle with his brother, Prince Chao.
In the twelfth year of Duke Qing’s reign, the Six Clans of Jin enforced their authority by exterminating two noble houses—the Qi and Yangshe families—seizing their lands and dividing them into ten counties. Each of the Six Clans appointed their own kin as governors. This marked the further weakening of the Jin royal house.
Thirteen years later, the treacherous minister Yang Hu of Lu fled to Jin. Zhao Jianzi, swayed by a bribe, granted him refuge and treated him with great favor.
During Zhao Jianzi’s later years, he fell gravely ill, remaining unconscious for five days, causing great distress among his ministers. The famed physician Bian Que examined him and reassured them, “His pulse is steady—there is no need for alarm. In the past, Duke Mu of Qin suffered a similar ailment and awoke on the seventh day. Upon waking, he spoke to Gongsun Zhi and Zi Yu, saying, ‘I ascended to the celestial realm of the Supreme Deity and found great joy there. I lingered, for I was receiving divine instruction. The Supreme Deity revealed to me that Jin would descend into chaos, suffering five generations of unrest. Yet, in the future, a descendant shall rise to power, though his reign will be brief, and his own son will usher in an era of decadence for Jin.’ Gongsun Zhi recorded this prophecy and kept it hidden. That prediction has now come to pass—the turmoil under Duke Xian, the dominance of Duke Wen, and the decadence following Duke Xiang’s defeat of Qin at the Battle of Yao. These events are known to all. Now, your lord’s illness mirrors that of Duke Mu. Within three days, he will recover, and upon waking, he shall surely have something to say.”
Two and a half days later, Zhao Jianzi regained consciousness. Summoning his ministers, he recounted his extraordinary vision:
“I ascended to the celestial court of the Supreme Deity and wandered through the Grand Heavens, where I witnessed the divine orchestration of music unlike any heard in the eras of Xia, Shang, or Zhou—its melody was ethereal, stirring the soul. While I was there, a great bear lunged at me, but the Supreme Deity handed me a bow, and I shot it down. Then, a ferocious badger appeared, and I slew it as well. Pleased, the Deity bestowed upon me two bamboo caskets, each containing a smaller chest within. I also saw a child standing by the Deity’s side. The Deity then entrusted me with a sacred dog named Di, saying, ‘When your son comes of age, present this dog to him.’
The Supreme Deity further revealed to me: ‘The state of Jin will gradually decline and, within seven generations, shall meet its end. A man of the Ying clan will achieve a great victory over the Zhou near Fan Kui in the west, but Jin shall not hold dominion there. In honor of the virtuous Emperor Shun, I shall grant his descendant, Lady Meng Yao, in marriage to your seventh-generation heir.’”
Upon hearing this prophecy, Minister Dong Anyu meticulously transcribed it for preservation. When he relayed Bian Que’s words to Zhao Jianzi, the lord was so moved that he granted the physician four acres of land as a reward.
One day, Lord Jian was out when an individual blocked his path and refused to let him pass, provoking his attendants to the point of wanting to execute him. The interloper declared, “I have urgent business to present to your lordship.” When his attendants relayed these words to Lord Jian, he summoned the man. Upon their meeting, Lord Jian exclaimed, “Ah! I recall seeing you clearly before.” The man then commanded, “Dismiss your retinue; I have matters to report.” Once the attendants withdrew, the man continued, “When you were ailing, I stood by the Divine’s side.”
Lord Jian replied, “Indeed, that occurred. And what was I engaged in when you saw me?” The man answered, “The Divine bade you to shoot at bears and wild boars, and you slew them all.” “Very well,” said Lord Jian, “and what is the significance of that?” The man responded, “It portends a great calamity for the state of Jin—with you as its chief—since the Divine intends you to annihilate two high ministers whose forefathers are symbolized by the bear and the wild boar.”
Lord Jian inquired further, “The Divine has granted me two bamboo chests, each paired with a smaller box. What might this signify?” The man explained, “Your son shall one day conquer two nations in Di, both of which bear the name ‘Zi’.” “I also observed a child beside the Divine,” continued Lord Jian, “for whom the Divine bestowed a Di hound, saying, ‘When your son comes of age, present this hound to him.’ Pray, what is the meaning of gifting the Di hound to this child?” The man replied, “The child is indeed your son, and the Di hound is the progenitor of the state of Dai. In time, your son shall assuredly rule Dai. In your descendants, a reformation of governance will occur, and they will don the attire of the Hu, even as Di annexes the two nations.”
Lord Jian then inquired after the man’s surname and offered him an official post. The man answered, “I am but a rustic messenger, here solely to deliver the Divine’s decree,” and, having spoken, he vanished. Lord Jian recorded these pronouncements and preserved them in his secret archives.
On another occasion, Gubu Ziqing paid Lord Jian a visit. In response, Lord Jian assembled all his sons for a physiognomic reading. Ziqing remarked, “None of you possess the qualities befitting a general.” Alarmed, Lord Jian queried, “Does this mean the Zhao lineage is doomed?” Ziqing replied, “I once encountered a child along the road—could he be your son?” At that, Lord Jian summoned his son, Wuxiu. As soon as Wuxiu appeared, Ziqing rose and declared, “Here is the true general!”
Lord Jian objected, “But his mother is of humble birth—a maid from Di. How can he be considered noble?” Ziqing replied, “What is bestowed by Heaven, regardless of humble origins, is destined for greatness.” From that day forward, Lord Jian frequently convened his sons for counsel, with Wuxiu invariably excelling. On one occasion, Lord Jian announced to his sons, “I have concealed the precious talisman atop Changshan. Whoever finds it first shall be richly rewarded.” The sons hastened to scale Changshan in search of the talisman, yet found nothing. When Wuxiu returned, he stated, “I have discovered the talisman: from the summit of Changshan one can see the state of Dai, ripe for the taking.” Realizing Wuxiu’s exceptional wisdom, Lord Jian deposed the crown prince Berkulu and appointed Wuxiu as his successor.
Two years later, in the fourteenth year of Duke Ding of Jin (498 BC), the Fan and Zhongxing clans instigated rebellion. In the following spring, Lord Jian instructed the Handan minister Zhao Wu, “Return to me the five hundred households of Wei; I intend to resettle them in Jinyang.” Zhao Wu assented, but upon his return, his kinsmen objected, causing him to renege on his promise. Consequently, Zhao Yang apprehended Zhao Wu and imprisoned him in Jinyang. He then announced to the people of Handan, “I have personally executed Zhao Wu; now, whom do you propose to install as ruler?” Thus, Zhao Wu was slain. Zhao Wu’s son, Zhao Ji, together with his retainers, instigated a rebellion in Handan. In response, the ruler of Jin dispatched Ji Qin to besiege Handan. However, Xun Yin, Fan Jishe, and allies of Zhao Wu, rather than assisting Ji Qin in quelling the revolt, conspired to instigate further insurrection—a plot of which Dong Anyu became aware. In October, the Fan and Zhongxing factions advanced against Zhao Yang, who fled to Jinyang, only to have Jin forces lay siege to it. Enemies of Fan Jishe and Xun Yin, including Wei Xiang, schemed to expel Xun Yin by replacing him with Liang Yingfu, and to oust Fan Jishe by substituting him with Fan Gaoyi.
Xun Lai then addressed the Jin ruler, asserting, “Your late predecessor decreed that any who lead a rebellion shall be executed. Now, with three ministers stirring insurrection, it is unjust to punish solely Zhao Yang; they must all be expelled.” In November, under Duke Guo’s orders, Xun Lai, Han Buning, and Wei Duo led an expedition against the Fan and Zhongxing clans, but to no avail. Subsequently, the Fan and Zhongxing forces turned on Duke Ding, who retaliated, forcing the insurgents to flee. On the day marked Dingwei, two conspirators fled to Chaoge, while Han Buning and Wei Duo pleaded on behalf of Zhao Yang. In December, on Xinwei day, Zhao Yang entered Jiangcheng and took an oath in Duke Ding’s palace. The following year, Zhibo Wenzi advised Zhao Yang, “Although the Fan and Zhongxing clans did incite the rebellion, Dong Anyu was the true instigator. Under Jin law, rebels must be executed; the two have already been punished, yet Dong Anyu remains at large.” Troubled by these words, Zhao Yang was further perturbed. Dong Anyu then proclaimed, “Were I to perish, the Zhao would find stability and Jin would know peace; alas, I have tarried too long.” And with that, he took his own life. Zhao Yang reported this occurrence to Zhibo, and thereafter, tranquility returned to the Zhao clan.
Confucius later remarked upon hearing that Lord Jian of Zhao, without seeking the counsel of the Jin ruler, had arrested the Handan minister Zhao Wu—an act which compelled the enemy to retreat to Jinyang. Thus, the Spring and Autumn Annals record, “Zhao Yang, seizing Jinyang, incited rebellion.”
Lord Jian also maintained a retainer named Zhou She, renowned for his forthright and candid counsel. After Zhou She’s passing, whenever Lord Jian attended court to deliberate state affairs, he was visibly discontented, prompting his ministers to offer their apologies. Yet, Lord Jian would respond, “You are blameless. I have heard that a thousand sheepskins are not worth the hide from a fox’s underarm. In court, I now only hear obsequious responses, bereft of the vigorous debate once provided by Zhou She—and that grieves me.”
In this manner, Lord Jian succeeded in uniting the people of Zhao and even won the allegiance of the Jin, ensuring the enduring prosperity of his domain.
In the eighteenth year of Duke Ding of Jin’s reign, Zhao Jianzi encircled Fan Jishe and Zhongxing Yin at Chaoge, compelling Zhongxing Yin to flee to Handan. The following year, upon the death of Duke Ling of Wei, Zhao Jianzi and Yang Hu escorted Crown Prince Kuai Kui to the State of Wei; but when Wei refused to accept him, the prince was forced to take refuge in Qicheng.
In the twenty-first year of Duke Ding’s rule, Zhao Jianzi launched an assault on Handan, driving Zhongxing Yin (also known as Wenzi) to seek sanctuary among the Bai people. Not long after, Zhao Jianzi besieged the Bai, prompting both Zhongxing Yin and Fan Jishe (referred to as Zhao Zi) to escape to the State of Qi. At length, the Zhao clan secured control over Handan and the Bai territories, while the remaining lands of the Fan and Zhongxing families were absorbed into Jin. Although Zhao Jianzi bore the title of Supreme Minister of Jin, he effectively monopolized state power—the extent of his fief rivaling that of an independent lord.
In the thirtieth year of Duke Ding’s reign, at a grand alliance summit held at Huangchi, Duke Ding and King Fuchai of Wu contended for leadership of the gathering. Accompanying his sovereign, Zhao Jianzi ultimately ensured that King Fuchai was acknowledged as the head of the alliance. Duke Ding later died after a reign of thirty-seven years, and in an unusual dispensation, Zhao Jianzi was relieved of the customary three-year mourning period—his period of bereavement lasting only one year. In that very year, King Goujian of Yue vanquished the State of Wu.
In the eleventh year of Duke Chu of Jin (464 BC), during Zhi Bo’s campaign against the State of Zheng, Zhao Jianzi—afflicted by illness—sent Crown Prince Wu Xu to lead forces in a siege of Zheng. However, a drunken Zhi Bo, in a fit of inebriation, forcefully poured wine on and beat Wu Xu. Incensed ministers among Wu Xu’s retinue demanded that Zhi Bo be executed. In his measured reply, Wu Xu declared, “My lord appointed me crown prince because I possess the fortitude to endure humiliation.” Yet, harboring personal resentment toward Zhi Bo, he could not let the insult pass. When Zhi Bo later reported the incident to Zhao Jianzi and urged him to depose Wu Xu, Jianzi refused, thereby deepening Wu Xu’s enmity toward Zhi Bo.
In the seventeenth year of Duke Chu’s reign, Zhao Jianzi passed away, and Crown Prince Wu Xu ascended the throne as Zhao Xiangzi.
In the first year of Zhao Xiangzi’s reign (457 BC), as the State of Yue laid siege to Wu, the new ruler—still in mourning—scaled back the elaborate feasting prescribed during his period of bereavement, and dispatched his retainer Chu Long to extend consolatory greetings to the Wu king.
Zhao Xiangzi’s elder sister, formerly the consort of the King of Dai, undertook a daring stratagem shortly after Zhao Jianzi’s funeral. Still garbed in mourning attire, she journeyed north to ascend Mount Xiawu and summon the King of Dai. There, she ordered the royal cook—with a bronze ladle in hand—to invite the Dai monarch and his retinue to dine. During the wine service, she covertly instructed an attendant named Ge to lethally strike the king and his palace officials with the bronze ladle. Seizing the moment, she then dispatched troops to pacify the territory of Dai. Overcome with grief upon learning of these treacherous events, her sister wept bitterly and, sharpening her hairpin to a fine point, committed suicide. The inhabitants of Dai, moved by her plight, thereafter named the site of her death “Mount Moji.” In the aftermath, Zhao Xiangzi granted the territory of Dai to Zhao Zhou—the son of Bo Lu, his elder brother and the former crown prince—thereby establishing him as the Lord of Dai.
By the fourth year of Zhao Xiangzi’s reign, Zhi Bo along with the prominent clans of Zhao, Han, and Wei had partitioned all the territories formerly held by the Fan and Zhongxing families. This provoked the wrath of Duke Chu of Jin, who announced his intention to call upon the States of Qi and Lu to subjugate the four powerful lords. Alarmed, these four lords united to attack Duke Chu, who fled toward Qi but perished en route. In the ensuing power vacuum, Duan Bo installed Jiao—the great-grandson of Duke Zhao—as the new ruler, known henceforth as Duke Yi of Jin. Meanwhile, Zhi Bo’s arrogance grew; he demanded that the Han and Wei clans cede portions of their territory, and when they complied, he pressed for similar concessions from the Zhao clan. Refusing to relent—especially given Zhi Bo’s previous insults during the siege of Zheng—Zhi Bo, incensed, led the Han and Wei in an offensive against the Zhao. Overwhelmed by the assault, Zhao Xiangzi was forced to retreat to Jinyang.
While fleeing with Zhao Xiangzi, Yuan Guo lagged behind and eventually arrived at Wang Ze, where he encountered three mysterious figures—visible only from the waist up while their lower halves remained concealed. They presented him with a segmented bamboo staff, its two parts unconnected at the center, and bade him, “Deliver this staff to Zhao Wu Xu on our behalf.” Upon reaching his destination, Yuan Guo apprised Zhao Xiangzi of the strange occurrence. Observing a three-day fast, Zhao Xiangzi then personally disassembled the bamboo staff to reveal an inscription in vivid vermilion ink:
“Zhao Wu Xu, we are the celestial envoys of Lord Shanyang of Huo Taishan. On the day of Bingxu in the third month, we shall empower you to reverse fortune and annihilate the Zhi clan. You must erect a temple in honor of our hundred cities, and we shall bestow upon you the lands of Linhu. From your posterity shall arise a valiant king—of red and ebony complexion, with a visage akin to both dragon and bird, sideburns merging with his eyebrows, a luxuriant beard framing his face, a broad chest and ample belly, a lithe lower body and a robust upper frame, donning a draped left garment and riding an armored steed—who will seize dominion over the mid-Yellow River region, extending to the territories of the Moha tribes in the Xiuhun lands, advancing southward to subjugate the remaining cities of Jin and northward to vanquish the Heigu.”
Deeply moved, Zhao Xiangzi prostrated himself and solemnly accepted the divine mandate of these three heavenly emissaries.
Soon thereafter, the armies of the Three Kingdoms attacked Jinyang, and after more than a year, floodwaters from the Fen River inundated the city—leaving only the upper three tiers of its walls unsubmerged. In their desperate plight, the inhabitants resorted to the unthinkable: they hung their cauldrons for cooking and even exchanged their own offspring for sustenance. Meanwhile, the ministers, their loyalty eroded by self-interest, increasingly neglected the proper rituals of decorum—save for Gao Gong, who steadfastly maintained his propriety. Alarmed by the ensuing chaos, Zhao Xiangzi dispatched his Prime Minister Zhang Mengtong in the dead of night to clandestinely negotiate with the Han and Wei. In collusion, the Han, Wei, and Zhao factions conspired; on the day of Bingxu in the third month, the Three Kingdoms reversed the tide by exterminating the Zhi clan and partitioning its lands among themselves. Consequently, Zhao Xiangzi proceeded to distribute rewards, ranking Gao Gong among the highest. When Zhang Mengtong remarked, “During Jinyang’s crisis, only Gao Gong refrained from seeking personal credit,” Zhao Xiangzi retorted, “In our hour of peril, while other ministers neglected their duty, only Gao Gong dared not forgo the decorum due of a subject—thus, he merits the highest honor.” At that juncture, the Zhao, who now controlled the Dai territory in the north and had annexed the Zhi lands in the south, had emerged as the preeminent force—surpassing even the Han and Wei. Accordingly, Zhao Xiangzi established temples to honor the three deities in the hundred cities and entrusted Yuan Guo with presiding over the ceremonies at the Huo Taishan shrine.
The later years of Xiangzi saw him marrying a woman from the Kongtong clan, with whom he had five sons. However, as Bó Lǔ had failed to ascend the throne, Xiangzi refused to establish any of his own sons as crown prince. Instead, he insisted on passing the rulership to Dai Chengjun, the son of Bó Lǔ. When Chengjun passed away prematurely, Xiangzi designated Chengjun’s son, Zhao Huan, as the heir. After reigning for thirty-three years, Xiangzi passed away, and Zhao Huan ascended the throne as Marquis Xian.
Marquis Xian took the throne at a young age, with his capital in Zhongmou.
However, Xiangzi’s younger brother, Huanzi, seized power and expelled Marquis Xian, declaring himself ruler in Dai. Yet, he passed away after only a year. Believing that Huanzi’s rule was against Xiangzi’s wishes, the Zhao people united to kill his son and reinstated Marquis Xian.
In the tenth year of Marquis Xian’s reign, Wugong of the Zhongshan state ascended the throne. By the thirteenth year, a city was built in Pingyi. In the fifteenth year, Marquis Xian passed away, and his son, Marquis Lie, Zhao Ji, succeeded him.
In the first year of Marquis Lie’s reign (408 BCE), Wenhou of Wei launched an attack on Zhongshan, stationing Crown Prince Wei Ji to oversee the campaign. By the sixth year (403 BCE), Wei, Han, and Zhao were officially recognized as feudal lords, and Zhao Ji posthumously honored Xianzi with the title of Marquis Xian.
Marquis Lie had a deep appreciation for music. One day, he asked his Chancellor, Gong Zhonglian, “If I have someone I cherish, can I elevate them to nobility?” Gong Zhonglian replied, “Granting them wealth is possible, but elevating them to nobility is not so simple.” Marquis Lie responded, “Very well. There are two renowned singers from Zheng—Qiang and Shi. I intend to bestow upon them land, each receiving ten thousand mu.” Gong Zhonglian agreed but took no immediate action. A month later, upon returning from Dai, Marquis Lie inquired about the land grant, and Gong Zhonglian deflected, saying he was still searching for suitable land. As time passed and Gong Zhonglian continued to stall, he eventually claimed illness and ceased attending court.
Meanwhile, Fanwu Jun arrived from Dai and spoke to Gong Zhonglian: “The ruler truly wishes to govern wisely but does not know how. You have served as Zhao’s Chancellor for four years now, yet have you recommended any capable individuals?” Gong Zhonglian admitted he had not. Fanwu Jun then suggested, “Niu Xu, Xun Xin, and Xu Yue are all worthy candidates.” Gong Zhonglian took his advice and recommended them.
At court, when Marquis Lie once again asked about the land for the singers, Gong Zhonglian replied, “We are selecting only the finest land for them.” Meanwhile, Niu Xu began instructing Marquis Lie in benevolence and moral governance, encouraging him to rule with righteousness. This softened the ruler’s disposition. The next day, Xun Xin served at his side, advocating for the careful selection of competent officials. On the third day, Xu Yue advised frugality and prudent management of state resources, emphasizing the need to evaluate officials based on their achievements and virtue. The arguments of these three advisors were so compelling that the Marquis was deeply impressed. He then sent a messenger to Gong Zhonglian, saying, “Suspend the land grants for the singers.” In recognition of his wise counsel, Marquis Lie appointed Niu Xu as his tutor, Xun Xin as Commander of the Guards, and Xu Yue as Minister of Internal Affairs, also rewarding Gong Zhonglian with two sets of court robes.
In the ninth year of his reign, Marquis Lie passed away, and his younger brother, Duke Wu, took the throne. Duke Wu ruled for thirteen years before his passing, after which the Zhao state installed Zhao Zhang, the son of Marquis Lie, as ruler, later known as Marquis Jing. That same year, Wenhou of Wei also passed away.
In the first year of Marquis Jing’s reign (386 BCE), Duke Wu’s son, Zhao Chao, rebelled but was ultimately defeated and fled to Wei. That same year, the Zhao state officially established Handan as its capital.
In the second year, Zhao forces defeated the Qi army at Lingqiu. The third year saw Zhao troops aiding Wei at Linqiu, where they crushed the Qi army. However, in the fourth year, Zhao suffered a major defeat against Wei at Tutai. To counter future threats, Zhao fortified Gangping as a strategic stronghold for operations against the state of Wey.
In the fifth year, Qi and Wei, siding with Wey, launched a joint attack on Zhao, seizing Gangping. By the sixth year, Zhao sought military assistance from Chu to strike Wei, successfully capturing Jipu. The eighth year saw the conquest of Wei’s Huangcheng. In the ninth year, Zhao launched a campaign against Qi. When Qi later waged war on Yan, Zhao intervened to rescue Yan. The following year, Zhao engaged Zhongshan in battle at Fangzi County.
By the eleventh year (376 BCE), Zhao, Wei, and Han formed an alliance to annihilate the state of Jin, dividing its territory among themselves. Zhao then turned its forces against Zhongshan, leading to another battle in Zhongren. The following year, Marquis Jing passed away, and his son, Marquis Cheng, Zhao Zhong, ascended the throne.
In the first year of Marquis Cheng’s reign (374 BCE), Prince Zhao Sheng challenged him for the throne, leading to a rebellion. In the second year, snow fell in June. In the third year, Tai Wuwu was appointed Chancellor, and Zhao waged war against Wey, capturing seventy-three of its settlements. However, Zhao forces suffered a defeat at Lin at the hands of Wei.
In the fourth year, Zhao clashed with Qin at Gao’an and emerged victorious. The following year, Zhao launched an offensive against Qi at Juancheng, while Wei countered by defeating Zhao at Huai. Zhao then attacked Zheng, conquering it and ceding the captured territory to Han in exchange for Changzi County.
By the sixth year, the Zhongshan state constructed a Great Wall, while Zhao launched an invasion of Wei, defeating them at Luanzé and besieging King Hui of Wei. The seventh year saw an incursion into Qi, reaching the Qi Great Wall. Zhao then allied with Han to attack the Western Zhou state. In the eighth year, Zhao and Han divided Western Zhou between them. The ninth year saw another battle with Qi at Acheng.
In the tenth year, Zhao assaulted Wey and captured Zhencheng. The eleventh year saw Qin attacking Wei, prompting Zhao to send reinforcements to Shia. The twelfth year witnessed another Qin incursion against Wei’s Shaoliang, with Zhao intervening once more. By the thirteenth year, Duke Huiwen of Qin deployed General Guo to lead an offensive against Wei’s Shaoliang, capturing the Wei Crown Prince and Grandee Gongsun Cuo. However, Wei forces retaliated, dealing a significant blow to Zhao at Huishui and seizing Pila.
Marquis Cheng then met with Han’s Marquis Zhao at Shangdang. The following year, Zhao and Han launched a joint attack on Qin. In the fifteenth year, Zhao aided Wei in a campaign against Qi.
In the sixteenth year, the state of Zhao, along with Han and Wei, partitioned Jin, granting the county of Duan to the Jin ruler.
In the seventeenth year, Lord Cheng encountered King Hui of Wei at Genie. In the nineteenth year, Zhao held an alliance at Pinglu with the states of Qi and Song, and another alliance at Xia with Yan. In the twentieth year, the state of Wei presented superior lumber for eaves’ rafters, which were then used to construct the Tan Platform. In the twenty-first year, Wei forces besieged Handan. The following year, King Hui of Wei captured Handan, while Qi forces defeated the Wei army at Guiling. In the twenty-fourth year, Wei returned Handan to Zhao, and the two states swore an oath by the banks of the Zhang River. Meanwhile, Qin forces attacked Lincheng in Zhao. In the twenty-fifth year, Lord Cheng passed away. Prince Xie contended with Crown Prince Suhou for the throne; Zhao Xie was defeated and fled to Han.
In the first year of Suhou’s reign (349 BC), he seized Duan County from the Jin ruler and relocated the ruler to Tunliu for his residence. In the second year, he met with King Hui of Wei at Yinjin. In the third year, Prince Zhao Fan launched an assault on Handan but perished before achieving victory. In the fourth year, he paid homage to the Son of Heaven. In the sixth year, he attacked Qi and captured Gaotang. In the seventh year, Prince Zhao Ke advanced on the Wei stronghold at Shouyuan. In the eleventh year, Duke Xiao of Qin dispatched Shang Yang to campaign against Wei, capturing the Wei general Prince Zhao Ang. In response, Zhao attacked Wei. In the twelfth year, Duke Xiao of Qin died, and Shang Yang followed suit. In the fifteenth year, construction commenced on the Shou Mausoleum, and King Hui of Wei passed away.
In the sixteenth year, Suhou toured the Grand Mausoleum. Passing by Lumen, Chancellor Taiwuwu seized the horse’s bridle and declared, “In the midst of the busy farming season, a single day without plowing leads to a hundred days without a meal!” Upon hearing this, Suhou immediately dismounted and acknowledged his fault.
In the seventeenth year, he laid siege to Huangcheng in Wei, though he could not capture it, and he proceeded to repair the Great Wall.
In the eighteenth year, Qi and Wei jointly waged war against Zhao. Zhao decided to divert the waters of the Yellow River to flood the enemy, forcing their withdrawal. In the twenty-second year, Zhang Yi was appointed as Chancellor of Qin. Zhao Ci engaged the Qin forces but was defeated; the Qin army then slayed Zhao Ci at Hexi and seized the territories of Lin and Lishi. In the twenty-third year, Han Ju fought alongside Qi and Wei, and fell in battle at Sangqiu.
In the twenty-fourth year, Suhou died, and each of the states—Qin, Chu, Yan, Qi, and Wei—sent ten thousand elite troops to attend his funeral. Suhou’s son ascended the throne as King Wu Ling.
In the first year of King Wu Ling’s reign (325 BC), Zhao Bao was appointed Chancellor by Yangwen Jun. King Liang of Xiang, along with Crown Prince Si, and King Xuan of Han with Crown Prince Cang, arrived at the Xinchong Palace to pay their respects. Still young and inexperienced in statecraft, King Wu Ling established an advisory body comprising three renowned scholars and appointed three officials to supervise court ceremonies. When conducting state affairs, he would first pay homage to the esteemed minister Feiyi, one of his late predecessors’ trusted aides, bestowing upon him an elevated rank and increased stipend; furthermore, each month he presented gifts to the nation’s venerable elders, all of whom were over eighty and possessed lofty virtue.
In the third year, King Wu Ling oversaw the construction of Haocheng. In the fourth year, he met with the King of Han at Qushu. In the fifth year, he married a noblewoman from the Han clan.
In the eighth year, Han launched an assault on Qin but, failing to secure victory, withdrew. While the other five states each assumed the title of “king,” Zhao alone refrained. The Zhao ruler declared, “Without genuine achievement, how can one claim such a lofty title?” and ordered that henceforth all Zhao subjects refer to him merely as “lord.”
In the ninth year, together with Han and Wei, he advanced on Qin; however, Qin defeated the allied forces, slaying eighty thousand men. Qi, meanwhile, vanquished the Zhao army at Guanze. In the tenth year, Qin forces captured Zhao’s Zhongdu and Xiyang. Qi then defeated Yan, whose Chancellor, Zi Zhi, ascended the throne, only to find himself forced into a subordinate role. In the eleventh year, King Wu Ling summoned Prince Zhi of Yan from Han, declared him King of Yan, and dispatched Lechi to escort him to his new realm. In the thirteenth year, Qin captured Zhao’s Lincheng and took the general Zhao Zhuang prisoner. Both the King of Chu and the King of Wei journeyed to Zhao, arriving at Handan. In the fourteenth year, Zhao He launched an assault on Wei.
In the sixteenth year, King Hui of Qin died. King Wu Ling then toured the Grand Mausoleum. One day, he dreamt of a maiden who played the zither and sang a poem: “Oh, how resplendent is the beauty—her countenance akin to the delicate blossoms of the sweetvine. Fate, oh fate, why does none recognize my Ying Wa?” On another occasion, King Wu Ling, in high spirits from wine, repeatedly recounted his dream, rhapsodizing over the maiden’s loveliness. Upon hearing this, Wu Guang, through his lady, sent his daughter, Wa Ying, into the palace. This maiden, known as Meng Yao, became exceedingly favored by King Wu Ling, and she was honored with the title of Hui Hou.
In the seventeenth year, King Wuling journeyed to Jiumen and erected an open-air platform to better survey the borders of the States of Qi and Zhongshan.
In the eighteenth year, King Wu of Qin and his attendant Meng Shuo met their fate while hoisting a red cauldron emblazoned with dragon motifs—the accident shattered a kneecap, and both perished. In response, the King of Zhao dispatched his chancellor, Zhao Gu, to the State of Yan to fetch Qin’s Lord Ji, who was brought back and enthroned as King of Qin—he would later be known as King Zhaoxiang.
In the spring of the nineteenth year, during the first month, a magnificent court assembly was held at Xinguang Palace. King Wuling summoned his trusted advisor Feiyi to deliberate on state affairs—a discussion that spanned five days before drawing to a close. Afterwards, the king embarked on a northern inspection of Zhongshan’s territories, proceeding first to Fangzi County and then to the lands of Dai. He advanced as far north as Wuqiong and as far west as the Yellow River, even ascending to the summit of Huanghua Mountain. There, he summoned Lou Huan to confer, saying:
“Our late sovereign seized the moment of shifting times to become ruler of the southern territories—uniting the formidable courses of the Zhang and Fu rivers, constructing a great wall, capturing Lin City and Guo Lang, and vanquishing the Linhu in Ren lands. Yet our mission remains unfulfilled. At present, with Zhongshan at our very heart, Yan lies to the north, the Eastern Hu to the east, and our western border abuts the realms of the Linhu, Loufan, Qin, and Han; without the reinforcement of a mighty army, our nation is doomed to perish. What shall we do? To achieve glory beyond the ordinary, one must be prepared to defy convention. I intend to don the attire of the Hu people.”
Lou Huan replied, “Very well,” though all the ministers were reluctant.
At that moment, as Feiyi attended at his side, King Wuling continued, “The achievements of Lord Jian and Lord Xiang stemmed from their shrewd exploitation of the advantages offered by the Hu and Di peoples. A loyal minister, when in favor, must exhibit unmistakable filial piety, respect for hierarchy, and an adherence to clear principles; and when empowered, he should establish endeavors that both benefit the populace and serve the sovereign—these twin duties are the essence of ministerial conduct. Now, as I seek to carry forward Lord Xiang’s legacy and expand into the territories inhabited by the Hu and Di, I find no minister in all the realm as virtuous as you. By undermining our foes with minimal exertion yet maximum effect, we can preserve the strength of our people and perpetuate the labors of our predecessors. But know this: those who achieve transcendent feats must inevitably bear the burden of forsaking traditional customs; those with exceptional wisdom must likewise endure the censure of the prideful masses. I now intend to wear Hu attire, ride horseback, and practice archery—and to use these very methods to train our people. Yet I fear that the world will surely deride me. What shall I do?”
To which Feiyi answered, “I have heard that hesitancy in action prevents success, and wavering in resolve precludes renown. Since you have resolved to shoulder the censure that comes with breaking with tradition, you need not be troubled by worldly opinion. Those who pursue the highest ideals do not kowtow to common customs; those who achieve great deeds do not seek counsel from ordinary mortals. In days of old, Emperor Shun moved the Three Miao through dance, and Yu, upon arriving in the Land of the Naked, removed his upper garment—not to indulge base desires or mere pleasure, but because such acts were indispensable to promulgating virtuous governance and securing victory. The foolish comprehend success only in hindsight, while the wise perceive its promise before a sign appears—so why hesitate any longer?”
King Wuling then declared, “I shall not doubt in wearing Hu garb, though I fear the world may laugh at me. The joy of the ignorant is the sorrow of the wise; what fools mock, the virtuous perceive with clarity. As long as those loyal to me persist, the advantages of adopting Hu attire are incalculable. Even if the world scoffs, I will nonetheless secure the lands of the Hu and Zhongshan.” And so, he adopted the Hu costume.
Shortly thereafter, King Wuling sent his emissary, Wang Jie, to deliver a message to Prince Cheng:
“As your sovereign, I have embraced Hu attire for court, and I earnestly hope that you, my uncle, will follow suit. In familial affairs, one must obey one’s parents; in state matters, one must yield to the sovereign—principles universally acknowledged from ancient times to the present. Children must not oppose their parents, and ministers must not contravene their ruler—this is common wisdom among brethren. Now that I have enacted a decree to change our garb, if you refuse to adopt it, I fear the world will have much to say. Governing a state requires adherence to established norms, for the welfare of the people is paramount; the management of state affairs rests on fundamental laws, and the issuance of orders is of utmost importance. To propagate virtuous governance, one must begin with the common folk; to enforce edicts, one must first secure the loyalty of the nobility. The purpose of wearing Hu attire is not to gratify base desires or to seek mere pleasure, but to achieve a specific objective and to fulfill our great undertakings. Only when our tasks are completed and our legacy established can matters be considered properly arranged. I fear that, if you do not comply, you will contravene the principles of statecraft; thus, I have come to counsel you. Moreover, I have heard that actions benefiting the nation are never morally aberrant, and that those who rely on noble kin will not see their reputations marred. Therefore, I place my trust in your loyalty and righteousness to realize the full potential of Hu attire. I have sent Wang Jie to implore you—please, adopt the Hu garb.”
In response, Prince Cheng bowed deeply and said, “I have heard of Your Majesty’s adoption of Hu attire. Alas, I am neither gifted nor robust—I lie bedridden, unable to traverse the realm and render fuller service. Yet, in obedience to Your Majesty’s command, I venture to offer my humble counsel in the spirit of my unworthy loyalty. I have heard that China is a land inhabited by the wise and discerning, a repository of boundless resources, a center where sages promulgate virtuous teachings, where benevolence and righteousness flourish, where foreigners come from afar to marvel, and even where barbarians eagerly emulate our ways. Now, by forsaking these traditions and donning the apparel of distant lands, Your Majesty appears to be altering time-honored teachings, deviating from the ancient path of rectitude, contravening popular sentiment, renouncing scholarly guidance, and distancing yourself from Chinese customs. I therefore implore Your Majesty to consider this matter with the utmost care.”
The envoy returned and reported these words faithfully. King Wuling then remarked, “I was long aware of my uncle’s ill health; I shall now go in person to entreat him.”
King Wuling of Zhao personally visited the residence of Prince Cheng to persuade him, saying:
*”Clothing exists for practical use, and rituals are meant to facilitate human affairs. The sages observed local customs and adapted etiquette accordingly, crafting rites that served the well-being of the people and the prosperity of the state. The people of Ouyue cut their hair short and tattooed their bodies, wearing garments with left-folded lapels. The people of the Great Wu Kingdom dyed their teeth black, tattooed their foreheads, wore fish-skin hats, and dressed in coarse, heavily stitched fabrics. Hence, attire and customs vary from place to place, yet all are designed for convenience. Different regions necessitate different practices, and distinct circumstances call for distinct regulations. Therefore, the sages believed that if something benefits the state, it need not adhere to a single tradition; if it facilitates governance, it need not conform to established rites.
Even within Confucian circles, disciples of the same teacher uphold different customs, and though the Central Plains share common rituals, their interpretations vary. How much more, then, should we accommodate the needs of distant lands? Thus, even the wisest minds cannot impose uniformity upon all decisions, nor can the sages make the attire of near and far lands identical. In remote regions, customs are diverse, and those with shallow knowledge are often the most argumentative. A just mind refrains from questioning the unknown and does not denounce differing views, instead gathering wisdom from various perspectives to achieve the best outcome.
Uncle, what you speak of is the narrow view of common tradition, whereas my concern is to rise above such conventions. Our nation shares the eastern banks of the Yellow River and the Bohuo Ford with Qi and Zhongshan, yet we lack the means to navigate its waters. From Changshan to Dai and Shangdang, our eastern borders touch Yan and the Eastern Hu, while to the west, we border Loufan, Qin, and Han—yet we are unprepared for mounted warfare. Without naval capabilities, how shall we defend our territories along the Yellow River and Bohuo? Without cavalry, how shall we guard our frontiers against Yan, the Three Hu, Qin, and Han?
In the past, Duke Jian failed to fortify Jinyang and Shangdang, and Duke Xiang waged wars to annex Rong territory and subdue Dai to repel the barbarian tribes—matters clear to both the wise and the foolish. Once, the state of Zhongshan, emboldened by Qi’s military strength, trampled upon our land, pillaged our people, and even besieged Haocheng by diverting the river against it. If not for divine intervention, Haocheng would have fallen. Our late king bore this disgrace, yet the debt of vengeance remains unpaid. Now that we have adopted cavalry and archery, we can solidify our hold over Shangdang and exact retribution upon Zhongshan. Yet, Uncle, you would cling to the traditions of the Central Plains, defy the legacies of Duke Jian and Duke Xiang, and reject reform for fear of criticism, all while forgetting the humiliation of Haocheng’s siege? That is not the path I wish to take.”
Upon hearing this, Prince Cheng prostrated himself and said: “I have been foolish, failing to grasp Your Majesty’s profound vision. I dared to speak from the perspective of worldly customs—this is my fault. Now that Your Majesty seeks to continue the ambitions of Duke Jian and Duke Xiang and fulfill the aspirations of our ancestors, how dare I disobey?”He bowed deeply once more.
King Wuling then bestowed upon him the attire of the Hu people. The next day, Prince Cheng donned the new garments and attended court. Only then did King Wuling formally issue the decree to adopt Hu-style clothing.
Many courtiers, including Zhao Wen, Zhao Zao, Zhou Zhao, and Zhao Jun, urged the king to abandon the new attire and adhere to traditional customs. King Wuling responded:
*”The customs of our forebears were not uniform—so which ancient practice should we emulate? No emperor blindly followed his predecessor—so which ritual should we obey? Fuxi and Shennong focused on moral instruction, avoiding severe punishments. Huangdi, Yao, and Shun employed penalties but with restraint. The rulers of Xia, Shang, and Zhou established laws according to their times, adapting rites to meet contemporary needs. Policies evolved with practical demands, and attire and weaponry were tailored for convenience. Thus, there is no singular form of etiquette, and governing effectively does not require imitating the past.
The great sages did not mimic their predecessors, yet they unified the realm. Conversely, the fall of Xia and Shang was not due to changes in rituals, yet they perished nonetheless. Therefore, to reject old customs is not inherently wrong, nor is following ancient rites inherently praiseworthy. If you claim that unusual attire leads to reckless minds, then Zou and Lu should have no eccentric individuals. If strange customs breed frivolity, then Wu and Yue should have produced no outstanding figures.
The sages decreed that as long as clothing benefits the body, it is worthy of being called attire; as long as rituals facilitate governance, they are worthy of being called rites. The purpose of ceremonial dress and social customs is to provide common people with a standard to follow, not to pass judgment on the virtuous. Ordinary folk adhere to prevailing trends, while the wise embrace change. Thus, the proverb says: ‘One who drives a cart solely by the book will never understand a horse’s nature; one who binds the present to the past will never comprehend the evolution of things.’ The efficacy of adhering to ancient laws can never surpass the realities of the present, nor can outdated doctrines govern the world today. You do not understand this principle!”*
Thus, King Wuling resolutely implemented the Hu-style attire and established military training in horseback archery.
In the twentieth year of his reign, King Wuling inspected the terrain of Zhongshan, reaching Ningjia. He then traveled westward to survey the lands of the Hu, reaching Yuzhong. The King of Linhu offered tribute in the form of fine horses. Upon returning, King Wuling dispatched envoys: Lou Huan to Qin, Chou Ye to Han, Wang Ben to Chu, Fu Ding to Wei, and Zhao Jue to Qi. He appointed Zhao Gu, Chancellor of Dai, to govern the Hu territories and recruit soldiers from among them.
In the twenty-first year, Zhao launched an offensive against Zhongshan. Zhao Zhao led the right wing, Xu Jun commanded the left, Prince Zhang headed the central forces, and King Wuling personally oversaw the three armies. Niu Jian commanded the war chariots and cavalry, while Zhao Xi led the Hu and Dai troops. Zhao Xi, along with the main forces, passed through the narrow valleys, converging at Quyang before seizing Danqiu, Huayang, and Chishang Pass. King Wuling personally captured Haocheng, Shiyi, Fenglong, and Dongyuan. Zhongshan, unable to resist, ceded four cities in exchange for peace, and King Wuling agreed to a temporary truce.
By the twenty-third year, Zhao resumed its assault on Zhongshan.
In the twenty-fifth year, Queen Hui passed away. King Wuling appointed Zhou Zhao, clad in Hu attire, to tutor Prince Zhao He.
In the twenty-sixth year, Zhao launched yet another campaign against Zhongshan, expanding its territory northward to the borders of Yan and Dai, and westward to Yunzhong and Jiuyuan.”
In the twenty-seventh year, on the Wushen day of May, a grand imperial assembly was held in the Eastern Palace. King Wu Ling abdicated the throne and designated his son, Zhao He, as the new ruler. After performing the ancestral rites at the ancestral temple, the new king emerged to attend court. The ministers—all high-ranking officials—gathered, with Feiyi serving as the Prime Minister and mentor to the new king. This is Huiwen King, who was the son of Queen Huihou Wu Wa. King Wu Ling styled himself as “Zhufu.”
Zhufu desired that his son govern autonomously; thus, he donned Hu-style attire and led his noble retainers northwest to inspect the Hu territories. He even planned an expedition, marching directly from Yunzhong and Jiuyuan southward to attack Qin. To that end, he personally disguised himself as an envoy to enter Qin. Unaware of his true identity, King Zhao of Qin was astonished by his imposing, nonconforming appearance and immediately dispatched pursuers. Yet, Zhufu had long since galloped beyond Qin’s passes. Upon careful inquiry, his identity was revealed, leaving the Qin with great trepidation. Zhufu’s covert entry into Qin was intended to survey the terrain firsthand and to observe the character of the Qin monarch.
In the second year of Huiwen King’s reign (297 BC), Zhufu inspected the newly acquired lands, traversing through the territory of Dai. He journeyed westward along the Xi River to meet with King Loufan, recruiting his soldiers into his service.
In the third year, the state of Zhongshan was annihilated, and its king was exiled to Fushi County. Construction of the Ling Shou city commenced. The northern territories now truly fell under Zhao’s dominion, and the roads to the lands of Dai became markedly accessible. Upon his return, rewards were distributed based on merit, a general amnesty was proclaimed, and a five-day banquet was held in celebration. Zhao Zhang, the eldest son, was enfeoffed as the Lord of Anyang in Dai. Zhao Zhang, known for his indulgence, harbored discontent at the ascension of his younger brother as king. Consequently, Zhufu dispatched Tian Buli to assist Zhao Zhang.
Li Dui addressed Feiyi, “Young Master Zhang is in the prime of life yet obstinate and conceited, with a considerable entourage and unbridled ambition. I fear his motives may become self-serving! Moreover, Tian Buli is a man of ruthless cruelty and arrogance. Should these two collude, treachery is sure to ensue. Once rebellion is kindled, they may seize the chance to usurp power. Men of ignoble ambition tend to act rashly, their schemes shallow—enticed solely by gain and blind to impending calamity. In such cases, conspirators will encourage one another, collectively ushering in disaster. In my estimation, such an uprising cannot be far off. You, bearing immense responsibility and authority, risk becoming the epicenter of turmoil, where calamity will concentrate, and you shall suffer first. The benevolent cherish all beings, and the wise guard against misfortune before it arises. How can one govern a state without both compassion and prudence? Why not claim illness and remain sequestered, transferring governance to Young Master Cheng? Do not let your realm become a repository for grievances, nor a stepping-stone to chaos.”
Feiyi retorted, “That will not do. When Zhufu entrusted the new king to me, he instructed, ‘Do not alter the established laws, do not change your heart; remain steadfast until your last breath.’ I accepted the king’s mandate with utmost reverence and duly recorded it. To now cower in fear of Tian Buli’s potential treachery, thereby neglecting the royal decree I have documented—what greater betrayal is there than such perfidy? Once one has solemnly received the royal mandate on the assembly floor, to neglect it afterward is far graver than mere negligence! A treacherous and unfaithful minister cannot expect leniency. As the proverb says, ‘Were the dead to revive, the living should not feel ashamed before them.’ I have spoken my word, and I must fulfill my promise in full—merely preserving my life is not enough! Moreover, when a loyal minister faces calamity, his integrity shines forth; when a true servant is entangled in misfortune, his actions must be unequivocal. You have counseled and admonished me, yet I have pledged my word and dare not deviate.”
Li Dui sighed, “Very well, then—do your utmost. I can see that your time may be short.” With that, he departed in tearful despair. On several subsequent occasions, Li Dui sought an audience with Young Master Cheng to forestall any uprising led by Tian Buli.
On another day, Feiyi confided to Xinqi, “Young Master Zhang and Tian Buli are deeply worrisome. Their words sound pleasing but conceal wicked intentions; they are unfilial and untrustworthy. I have heard that treacherous ministers at court are the nation’s bane, and slanderers within the palace are like parasites upon the sovereign. Such men, driven by greed and rampant ambition, when favored by the ruler, become bold enough to wreak havoc beyond the palace. Should they arrogate royal authority and issue edicts unbidden, disaster is not far behind. I am deeply anxious over this matter, losing sleep and forgoing sustenance in my worry. We must be ever vigilant against the incursions of brigands. Henceforth, if anyone requests an audience with the king, they must first meet with me. Only in the absence of turmoil may the king receive them.” Xinqi replied, “Splendid—I am heartened to hear such measures.”
In the fourth year, as ministers came to pay homage—and even the Lord of Anyang appeared—Zhufu arranged for the new king to preside over the court ceremonies, while he himself observed discreetly from the sidelines, scrutinizing the conduct of the ministers and royal kinsmen. Witnessing his eldest son Zhao Zhang’s dejected demeanor, who instead bowed submissively to his younger brother from the north, moved him with pity. In that moment, he contemplated dividing Zhao into two states and crowning Zhao Zhang as the king of Dai, though this plan was ultimately abandoned before any decision could be made.
In the first episode, Zhu Fu and King Huiwen journeyed to Shaqiu for a leisurely tour, each lodging in a separate palace. Seizing the opportunity, Prince Zhang, aided by his adherents and Tian Buli, incited a rebellion by falsely proclaiming that Zhu Fu had ordered the immediate summoning of King Huiwen. Feiyi was the first to enter the palace and was slain. Gao Xin then took up arms alongside King Huiwen. Meanwhile, Prince Cheng and Li Dui hurried from the capital, assembling the forces of the four counties to quell the insurrection. They executed both Prince Zhang and Tian Buli, eradicated their supporters, and restored stability to the royal household. In the aftermath, Prince Cheng was appointed Prime Minister with the noble title “Lord Anping,” and Li Dui was designated Minister of Justice. When Prince Zhang was ultimately defeated, he fled to seek refuge with Zhu Fu, who, in an act of compassion, sheltered him. Seizing this opportunity, Prince Cheng and Li Dui proceeded to besiege Zhu Fu’s palace. After Prince Zhang’s death, the two conspirators conspired further, remarking, “Because of Zhao Zhang, we have encircled Zhu Fu; even if we withdraw, our lineage shall be doomed to extinction!” Consequently, they intensified the siege, ordering the palace occupants that “those emerging last shall have their entire clan exterminated.” All within the palace were forced out. Zhu Fu attempted to escape but found himself trapped and bereft of sustenance; he was compelled to forage for fledgling sparrows to stave off hunger and, after more than three months, perished from starvation within Shaqiu Palace. Only once Zhu Fu’s death was unequivocally confirmed was the obituaristic notice dispatched to the feudal lords.
At that time, the youthful King Huiwen was under the de facto control of Prince Cheng and Li Dui, who, fearing for their own lives, had orchestrated the siege of Zhu Fu. Initially, Zhu Fu had designated his eldest son, Zhao Zhang, as crown prince. However, after coming into possession of Wu Wa—whom he cherished above all—he sequestered himself within her palace for several years. When Wu Wa eventually bore him a son, Zhao He, he deposed the original crown prince in favor of Zhao He. Following Wu Wa’s death, his ardor for Zhao He waned, and he again took pity on the original crown prince, contemplating a joint rule for both sons. His vacillation, however, precipitated chaos, culminating in the simultaneous demise of both father and son—a tragedy that would invite universal ridicule and profound lamentation.
In the fifth year of King Huiwen’s reign (294 BC), the State of Zhao ceded the territories of Mao and Yi to the State of Yan. In the eighth year, the southern route to Tang City was constructed. The following year, Zhao Liang led an army in alliance with the State of Qi to attack the State of Han, advancing as far as the gates of Lu. In the tenth year, the State of Qin boldly proclaimed itself the “Western Emperor.” In the eleventh year, Dong Shu and the Wei clan campaigned against the State of Song, securing He Yang within Wei, while Qin seized Gengyang. In the twelfth year, Zhao Liang once again led forces against Qi, and in the thirteenth year, Han Xu, serving as commander, launched an offensive against Qi; in that same year, the princess passed away. In the fourteenth year, Yan’s Prime Minister Le Yi commanded a coalition army drawn from Zhao, Qin, Han, Wei, and Yan, which successfully captured Lingqiu. Later, the kings of Zhao and Qin met at Zhongyang. In the fifteenth year, King Zhao of Yan visited the King of Zhao. Subsequently, an alliance of Zhao, Han, Wei, and Qin jointly attacked Qi—the Qi monarch fled in defeat while the Yan forces, advancing alone, captured the city of Linzi.
In the sixteenth year, the State of Qin, in conjunction with Zhao, launched several campaigns against Qi, engendering deep anxiety among the Qi people. In response, Su Li penned a letter to the King of Zhao on behalf of Qi, declaring:
“I have heard that in ancient times even the most virtuous of rulers did not see their benevolence pervade every corner of their realms, nor did their edicts reach every subject, and the seasonal sacrificial offerings were not always made available to the ancestors. Yet when the sweet dew falls in abundance, when timely rains yield bountiful harvests and the populace remains free from pestilence, all extol such fortune, while a truly sagacious sovereign reflects deeply.
Now, your own wisdom and accomplishments are not incessantly extended to the State of Qin; nor are your accrued resentments and indignations invariably aimed at Qi. With Qin and Zhao allying to coerce Han into raising an army—do they act out of genuine affection for Zhao? Or do they truly harbor enmity for Qi? When matters become excessive, a virtuous ruler must scrutinize them with utmost care. Qin does not act out of love for Zhao and hatred for Qi; rather, its designs are to obliterate Han and annex the two Zhou territories in the east and west, deliberately employing Qi as bait to ensnare the world. Fearing failure, it has compelled both Wei and Zhao to mobilize forces. Moreover, dreading that the nations of the world may soon oppose it, Qin dispatches hostages to engender trust, and even resorts to conscripting Han as a means of intimidation. Ostensibly, these measures appear to benefit the allied states, yet in reality, they are calculated to subdue a weakened Han. I am convinced that Qin’s stratagem is conceived along these very lines. While circumstances may differ in appearance, the calamities they portend are similar: as Chu suffered prolonged assaults on Dai and Zhongshan was ultimately annihilated, so too must Han, beset by enduring aggression against Qi, be doomed to destruction. Should Qi fall, Your Majesty and the other six states will share in its spoils; once Han is extinguished, Qin will possess it outright. By seizing the two Zhou territories, Qin will gain, to the west, the ritual implements for the Son of Heaven’s ancestral sacrifices—hoarding them for itself. In allocating lands, one must evaluate the tangible benefits—tell me, which yields a greater profit for Your Majesty: your present holdings or those that Qin may secure?”
Political pundits further opined, “With Han losing the Three Chuan and Wei forfeiting its Jin territories, and with no immediate changes in the market, disaster is nigh.” Moreover, after Yan had fully occupied the northern lands of Qi, the distance to Shaqiu and Julu diminished by three hundred li, while Han’s upper Dan now lay a mere one hundred li from Handan. Yan and Qin, in collusion, now plot to seize the rivers and mountains of Zhao; a minor thoroughfare of only three hundred li would suffice for their covert operations. Qin’s Upper Commandery, situated near Tingguan and extending to Yuzhong for fifteen hundred li, if leveraged along with its three commanderies to attack Zhao’s upper regions, would cause territories west of Yangchangban and south of Juzhu Mountain to fall from Your Majesty’s dominion. Beyond Juzhu Mountain, by severing Changshan and stationing troops there, a short distance of merely three hundred li would provide direct access to Yan. Consequently, the traditional treasures—be they the Dai, Ma, and Hu, or the exquisite jade of Kunshan—would no longer be at Your Majesty’s disposal. Given Your Majesty’s prolonged campaigns against Dai and Qi, and your alliance with the formidable Qin in the assault on Han, such misfortunes are all but inevitable. I implore You to deliberate these matters with utmost care.”
The State of Qi was attacked precisely because it had served Your Majesty; the coalition of states gathered their forces solely to bring harm upon Your Majesty. Now that the alliance between Yan and Qin has been forged, the day of their military campaign is fast approaching. The Five States have conspired to divide Zhao’s territory into three, while Qi, breaking the pact with them, has willingly sacrificed itself to alleviate Zhao’s peril. It marched westward to curb the growing might of Qin, forcing Qin to relinquish its imperial claim and submit. As a result, Qin returned Gaoping and Genrou to Wei, as well as Xingfen and Xianyu to Zhao. If any state has demonstrated the highest form of allegiance to Your Majesty, it is Qi. Yet now, Qi is being made to bear the burden of guilt. I fear that in the future, no nation will dare to serve Your Majesty with such resolve. I urge Your Majesty to deliberate carefully.
If Your Majesty refrains from joining the coalition in attacking Qi, the world will see Zhao as a just arbiter of righteousness. Qi, in gratitude, will serve Your Majesty with even greater devotion, and all states will revere Your Majesty’s sense of justice. By leading the states in maintaining amity with Qin and, if necessary, restraining its aggression, Your Majesty will secure everlasting honor and renown.
Thus, Zhao halted its advance, rejected Qin’s invitation, and withdrew from the campaign against Qi.
King Huiwen of Zhao later met with the King of Yan. Meanwhile, General Lian Po led a campaign against Xiyang in Qi, successfully capturing it.
In the seventeenth year of King Huiwen’s reign, General Le Yi commanded Zhao’s forces in an assault on Boyang, a city of Wei. However, Qin, resentful that Zhao had refused to join its campaign against Qi, turned its wrath against Zhao, capturing two of its cities. In the eighteenth year, Qin further seized Zhao’s city of Shicheng. In response, the King of Zhao traveled to Dongyang in Wei, where he diverted the Yellow River’s course and launched an offensive against Wei. The resulting deluge caused the Zhang River to overflow. Around this time, Wei Ran was appointed Chancellor of Zhao.
In the nineteenth year, Qin’s army captured two more cities from Zhao. Consequently, Zhao returned Boyang to Wei. Zhao She, leading Zhao’s forces, attacked and seized Maichou from Qi.
In the twentieth year, Lian Po led an invasion into Qi. Meanwhile, the King of Zhao met King Zhaoxiang of Qin beyond the western banks of the river.
In the twenty-first year, Zhao altered the course of the Zhang River to the west of Wuping. In the twenty-second year, a devastating plague swept through the land. Prince Dan was established as the crown prince.
In the twenty-third year, General Lou Chang led an expedition against Wei’s Ji Yi but failed to capture it. In December, Lian Po launched another assault on Ji Yi and successfully took it.
In the twenty-fourth year, Lian Po attacked Fangzi in Wei, capturing it and fortifying it before withdrawing. He then pressed further, conquering Anyang.
In the twenty-fifth year, Yan General Zhou led forces to attack Changcheng and Gaotang, seizing both. Zhao and Wei then mounted a joint offensive against Qin, but Qin’s great general Bai Qi defeated Zhao’s forces at Huayang, capturing a Zhao commander.
In the twenty-sixth year, Zhao reclaimed Dai, which had defected under pressure from the Eastern Hu.
In the twenty-seventh year, the Zhang River was again redirected, this time south of Wuping. Zhao Bao was granted the title of Lord of Pingyang. The Yellow River overflowed, causing severe flooding.
In the twenty-eighth year, Lin Xiangru led a campaign into Qi, reaching Pingyi. Meanwhile, Zhao halted construction on the grand city project at Jiumen in the north. That same year, in Yan, the generals Cheng’an Jun and Gongsun Cao assassinated their king.
In the twenty-ninth year, Qin and Han jointly besieged Eyu in Zhao. Zhao dispatched General Zhao She, who launched a surprise counterattack, decisively defeating Qin’s army beneath the city walls. For his triumph, the King of Zhao bestowed upon him the noble title of Lord Ma Fu.
In the thirty-third year of his reign, King Huiwen passed away, and Crown Prince Dan ascended the throne as King Xiaocheng.
In the first year of King Xiaocheng’s reign (265 BC), the Qin forces attacked Zhao and captured three cities. The newly crowned Zhao king had just ascended the throne while the dowager queen wielded actual power, and the Qin intensified their offensive. Zhao sought aid from Qi, whose king responded, “Only if Lord Chang’an is sent as a hostage can we dispatch our troops.” The dowager queen refused, despite impassioned remonstrations from her ministers. She declared emphatically to her attendants, “Should anyone again propose that Lord Chang’an be offered as a hostage, this old woman will spit in his face.”
The Left Master, Chulong, requested an audience with the dowager queen. In a fit of anger, she awaited his arrival. When Chulong entered the palace, he walked slowly in measured, shuffling steps before seating himself. He then confessed, “My venerable lady, my feet are ailing so that I cannot run swiftly; it has been long since I last paid my respects. Though I have privately forgiven myself for this delay, I have also feared for your health and earnestly wished to see you.”
The dowager queen retorted, “This old woman still manages to move by her chariot.”
“May I ask, has your diet not diminished?” inquired Chulong.
“I subsist merely on porridge,” she replied.
Chulong added, “I myself have lately lost my appetite and force myself to take gentle walks—three or four miles daily—to stimulate my appetite and keep my constitution sound.”
The dowager queen sighed, “This old woman cannot manage such exertions.”
Her stern visage softened slightly. Then, Chulong continued, “My son, Shuqi, though the youngest and of modest promise, is dearly cherished by me in my old age. I hope he might fill the vacancy among the Black-Clad Guards to defend the palace. I risk my life to bring this matter to your attention.”
The dowager queen inquired, “Very well—how old is he?”
“Fifteen years old,” he answered. “Though still young, I trust that before I am laid to rest, I may entrust him to your care.”
“Do you men not love your youngest sons as well?” she asked.
He replied, “Indeed, even more than women do.”
The dowager queen laughed, “Women, however, love all the more fiercely.”
Chulong then ventured, “In private, I have long believed that you favor Queen Yan over Lord Chang’an.”
“You err; my affection for Queen Yan is far less than that for Lord Chang’an,” she retorted.
Chulong pressed on, “Parents who truly cherish their offspring plan for their future with utmost care. When you saw Queen Yan off to her distant marriage, you grasped her heel and wept at the thought of the great distance she must travel—it was profoundly pitiable. Even after her departure, though you never ceased to miss her, during the ancestral rites you prayed, ‘By all means, do not let her return’—is that not a prudent measure, ensuring that her descendants may perpetually inherit the throne?”
The dowager queen acknowledged, “Indeed.”
Chulong then asked, “From now until three generations past, have any Zhao monarchs’ descendants who were ennobled as marquises ever maintained their positions?”
“None,” she replied.
“Is it not true throughout the other states as well—that the heirs of the ennobled are soon displaced?”
“I have not heard of such,” she admitted.
Chulong continued, “It is as though calamity befalls those near at hand, whereas misfortune for the distant ones falls upon their descendants. Is it that the offspring of monarchs—though ennobled—are inherently unworthy? Nay, it is because they enjoy lofty status without commensurate merit, generous stipends unearned, and possess an abundance of treasured riches. Now, you have exalted Lord Chang’an with great prestige, granted him fertile lands, and bestowed upon him many valuables; yet if you do not compel him to win renown for the state now, once you depart this mortal coil, on what basis will Lord Chang’an sustain his position in Zhao? In my estimation, your plans for him are myopic—it would be far wiser to favor Queen Yan instead.”
The dowager queen finally acquiesced, “Very well; send him wheresoever you deem fit.” Consequently, preparations were made for Lord Chang’an, including the requisition of one hundred chariots, and he was dispatched to Qi as a hostage—only then did the Qi court mobilize its forces.
Upon hearing these developments, Zi Yi remarked, “If even the sovereign’s own son—of the very flesh and blood—cannot rely on an unmerited exaltation, nor on a stipend unearned to safeguard treasures of gold and jade, how much less can men of our standing?”
Meanwhile, Lord Tian Dan of Anping in Qi led Zhao’s army in an assault on Zhongyang in Yan, capturing it. He then advanced against the Han garrison at Zhuren and likewise secured victory. In the second year, Queen Huiwen passed away, and Tian Dan assumed the chancellorship.
In the fourth year, King Xiaocheng dreamt that he was attired in garments of two contrasting hues and riding a soaring dragon aloft, only to plummet before reaching the heavens; he beheld mountains of gold and jade amassed like towering peaks. The following day, King Xiaocheng summoned a diviner named Gan, who opined: “To dream of attire in dual colors portends imperfection; to ride a flying dragon that fails to ascend signifies ambition devoid of true power; and to see mountains of gold and jade foretells imminent calamity.”
Three days later, Feng Ting, the commanding general of Shangdang from Han, dispatched an envoy to Zhao who declared, “Han cannot hold Shangdang and will inevitably be annexed by Qin. The officials and commoners there ardently wish to join Zhao rather than Qin. With seventeen cities in Shangdang, they humbly request incorporation into Zhao. O Great King, how do you intend to treat these subjects? Pray, decide.”
King Xiaocheng was elated and summoned Pingyang Lord Zhao Bao, inquiring, “Has Feng Ting indeed offered us seventeen cities? Should we accept them?”
Zhao Bao replied, “The sage considers unmerited favors to be a portent of grave disaster.”
King Xiaocheng retorted, “My benevolence inspires the people—how can this gift be unmerited?”
Zhao Bao responded, “Qin has been steadily encroaching on Han’s territories, severing connectivity between regions, and once assumed that Shangdang would naturally fall to them. Han’s refusal to submit to Qin is merely a ruse to implicate Zhao. Qin labors vigorously while Zhao reaps benefits unearned. Even mighty states cannot arbitrarily extract gains from smaller, weaker ones—indeed, it is often the reverse. How can one claim that this favor is unmerited? Moreover, Qin utilizes the waterways of Niutian to transport provisions, methodically consuming Han’s land, and fields its finest chariots in relentless warfare to partition Han’s territory. Their edicts are already in force, and to oppose them is folly. Therefore, we must not accept this gift.”
King Xiaocheng concluded, “Now, with a million-strong army advancing upon Qin, it would take a year or two merely to capture a single city. Yet here, as they offer us seventeen cities as a gift, it is indeed a most splendid advantage!”
After Zhao Bao left, King Xiaocheng summoned Lord Pingyuan and Zhao Yu to discuss the matter. They responded, “Mobilizing an army of a million men for a year may not even yield a single city, yet now we have acquired seventeen cities effortlessly. Such a great advantage must not be forsaken.” King Xiaocheng agreed and dispatched Zhao Sheng to accept the ceded lands.
Zhao Sheng conveyed the king’s decree to Feng Ting: “I am the emissary of our state, Zhao Sheng. Our sovereign has granted titles and rewards: three cities with ten thousand households each shall be bestowed upon the grand administrator; three cities with a thousand households each shall be granted to county magistrates. These titles shall be hereditary. All officials and commoners will be elevated by three ranks. Furthermore, those who ensure peaceful governance will receive six catties of gold as a reward.”
Tears streamed down Feng Ting’s face as he refused to meet the envoy. He declared, “I cannot place myself in a position of triple betrayal. First, as a guardian of my lord’s land, I failed to defend it to the death—this is the first betrayal. Second, my king assigned Shangdang to Qin, yet I disobeyed his decree—this is the second betrayal. Third, if I now accept rewards for selling my sovereign’s land, this would be the third betrayal.” Consequently, Zhao mobilized its troops to occupy Shangdang, and General Lian Po stationed his forces at Changping.
In the seventh month, Lian Po was dismissed, and Zhao Kuo took command. The Qin army encircled Zhao Kuo, who eventually surrendered. Over 400,000 Zhao soldiers were massacred. King Xiaocheng deeply regretted ignoring Zhao Bao’s advice, leading to the catastrophic tragedy of Changping.
Upon returning to the capital, King Xiaocheng refused Qin’s demands, prompting the Qin army to lay siege to Handan. The magistrate of Wuyuan, Fu Bao, along with Wang Rong and Su She, led a faction of Yan refugees back to their homeland. Zhao granted Lingqiu to the Prime Minister of Chu, Lord Chunshen.
In the eighth year, Lord Pingyuan traveled to Chu to seek reinforcements. After his return, Chu forces arrived to aid Zhao, along with Prince Wuji of Wei. As a result, Qin lifted the siege of Handan.
In the tenth year, Yan forces attacked Changzhuang, capturing it in May. Zhao generals Le Cheng and Qing She counterattacked the Qin forces in Xinliang, dealing them a defeat. That year, the Crown Prince of Zhao passed away, and Qin conquered the State of Western Zhou. Commander Tu Fuqi led his troops beyond the borders.
In the eleventh year, Zhao established the city of Jianyuan and designated Shangyuan County. Lord Wuyang, Zheng Anping, passed away, and his fief was reclaimed. In the twelfth year, Handan’s granary was set ablaze. In the fourteenth year, Lord Pingyuan, Zhao Sheng, died.
In the fifteenth year, the fief of Weiweng was granted to the Prime Minister, Lian Po, who was titled Lord Xinping. The King of Yan sent his chancellor, Li Fu, to cultivate relations with Zhao, offering 500 catties of gold in tribute. Upon returning to Yan, Li Fu advised his king, “Zhao’s able-bodied men perished at Changping, and their orphaned children have yet to mature. Now is the time to strike.” The King of Yan consulted Lord Changguo, Le Xian, who cautioned, “Zhao is beset by enemies on all sides, but its people are battle-hardened. Attacking them is unwise.” The king insisted, “If we outnumber them two to one, can we succeed?” Le Xian replied, “No.” The king pressed further, “What if we attack with a five-to-one advantage?” Again, Le Xian refused. Enraged, the King of Yan dismissed his counsel, as his ministers unanimously supported the war. Ultimately, Yan deployed two armies, fielding 2,000 war chariots: Li Fu led the assault on Haocheng, while Qing Qin attacked Dai. However, Zhao’s commander Lian Po decisively defeated and killed Li Fu, capturing Qing Qin and Le Xian.
In the sixteenth year, Lian Po besieged Yan’s capital. Zhao rewarded Le Cheng with the title Lord Wuxiang. In the seventeenth year, the acting Prime Minister, Grand General Wuxiang, led an offensive against Yan, encircling its capital. In the eighteenth year, General Yan Lingjun and Prime Minister Xinping, Lian Po, assisted Wei in attacking Yan. Meanwhile, Qin conquered thirty-seven cities in Zhao’s Yuci region.
In the nineteenth year, Zhao and Yan exchanged territories: Zhao ceded Longdui, Fenmen, and Linle to Yan, while Yan transferred Gucheng, Wuyang, and Pingshu to Zhao.
In the twentieth year (246 BCE), King Zheng of Qin ascended the throne. Qin forces captured Jinyang from Zhao.
In the twenty-first year, King Xiaocheng passed away. Lian Po led an expedition to Fanyang, successfully seizing it. However, King Zhao ordered Le Cheng to replace Lian Po. Enraged, Lian Po attacked Le Cheng, forcing him to flee, and subsequently defected to Wei. King Xiaocheng’s son, Zhao Yan, ascended the throne as King Daoxiang.
In the first year of King Daoxiang’s reign (244 BCE), Zhao sought to strengthen relations with Wei. The kingdom attempted to build a road linking Pingyi and Zhongmou in Wei but failed.
In the second year, General Li Mu led a campaign against Yan, capturing Wusui and Fangcheng. Qin summoned Lord Chunping under false pretenses and detained him. Xie Jun intervened, advising Prime Minister Wenxin Hou, “Lord Chunping is deeply trusted by the King of Zhao, but the inner court harbors jealousy toward him. They conspired, saying, ‘If Chunping visits Qin, Qin will surely detain him.’ Thus, they deliberately arranged his journey. By holding him hostage, you sever ties with Zhao, falling into their trap. Instead, release Chunping and detain Pingdu instead. Since Chunping commands the king’s confidence, Zhao will surely offer substantial territory to secure Pingdu’s return.” Wenxin Hou agreed and released Lord Chunping. Zhao then fortified a city at Hanga.
In the third year, General Pang Nuan led Zhao’s forces against the State of Yan, capturing Yan’s general, Ju Xin. In the fourth year, Pang Nuan commanded an elite coalition force of Zhao, Chu, Wei, and Yan in an attack on Zui, a strategic Qin stronghold, but failed to take it. He then redirected his campaign towards Qi, capturing Rao’an.
In the fifth year, General Fu Di led Zhao’s forces and stationed them at Pingyi, while Qing She commanded the armies of Dongyang and the regions beyond the Yellow River, securing the river’s bridges. In the sixth year, the Zhao court granted Rao’yang to Prince Chang’an. That same year, Wei ceded the city of Ye to Zhao.
In the ninth year, Zhao launched an offensive against Yan and captured the city of Liyang. Before Zhao could withdraw its forces, Qin struck back, invading and seizing Ye. That same year, King Daoxiang of Zhao passed away, and his son, Zhao Qian, ascended the throne as King Youmiu.
In the first year of King Youmiu’s reign (235 BCE), he ordered the construction of a fortress in Bairen. In the second year, Qin forces attacked Wucheng, prompting Zhao’s general Hu Zhe to lead a relief army. However, his troops suffered a crushing defeat, and Hu Zhe perished in battle.
In the third year, Qin launched an assault on Chuli and Yian. Zhao’s great general, Li Mu, engaged the Qin forces in a decisive battle beneath the walls of Feicheng, repelling them. In recognition of his victory, the Zhao king granted Li Mu the noble title of Lord Wu’an. In the fourth year, Qin attacked Fanwu, and once again, Li Mu led Zhao’s forces to drive them back.
In the fifth year, a massive earthquake struck Dai Commandery, devastating the land from Yuexu in the west to Pingyin in the north. Towers, houses, and city walls collapsed, and a fissure 130 paces wide split open the ground.
In the sixth year, a severe famine gripped Zhao. A haunting folk song spread among the people:
“The people of Zhao weep, while the people of Qin laugh.
If you do not believe it, just look at the barren fields—
Not a single sprout grows.”
In the seventh year, Qin launched a full-scale invasion of Zhao. Zhao’s supreme general, Li Mu, and General Sima Shang led the defense, counterattacking the Qin forces. However, due to court intrigue, Li Mu was executed, and Sima Shang was dismissed from command. Their replacements, Zhao Cong and Yan Ju of Qi, took charge of the Zhao army. Zhao Cong suffered a catastrophic defeat, and Yan Ju fled. In the wake of this disaster, King Zhao Qian surrendered to Qin.
In the eighth year, in the tenth month, the Zhao capital of Handan fell, coming under Qin’s control.
The Grand Historian Sima Qian remarked:
“I once heard from Feng Wangsun that King Zhao Qian was the son of a favored courtesan, whom King Daoxiang deeply adored. Ignoring tradition, Daoxiang deposed his rightful heir, Zhao Jia, and installed Zhao Qian as crown prince. Zhao Qian, known for his debauched character, was easily swayed by flattery and deceit. This folly led him to execute Zhao’s greatest general, Li Mu, and entrust power to the corrupt Guo Kai. How utterly absurd!
After Zhao Qian was captured by Qin, the exiled Zhao noblemen gathered in Dai Commandery and crowned Zhao Jia as their king. He ruled for six years before Qin’s relentless army crushed him. Thus, the State of Zhao was extinguished, its land reduced to a mere Qin commandery.”