The Grand Historian said: “Whenever I read the ‘Book of Documents: Yu Shu,’ I am moved by the mutual admonitions and earnest efforts between ruler and ministers, which brought some degree of peace to the world. Yet, when the chief ministers are unworthy, all affairs fall apart, and success remains elusive. I am often moved to tears by this realization. King Cheng of Zhou composed a hymn, mourning the hardships he endured and the calamities his family faced. Can we not say that his vigilance and ability to endure, even as a ruler, embodied the highest ideals of governance? A ruler who does not adopt a simple and disciplined political system will fail to achieve virtuous deeds and self-strengthening. Without these, self-satisfaction will lead to the neglect of rites and rituals. The talented do not forget the toil from which they emerged, and how can they disregard the struggles of the past? Being immersed in comfort while praising diligence is rare indeed. Who, possessing true virtue, would behave this way? The commentary on the Book of Documents says, ‘When governance is stable and achievements are accomplished, rites and music are then able to flourish.’”
The deeper the policies of governance penetrate the hearts of the people, the closer they come to a state of moral transformation. The joy of the people then diverges. Fulfillment, when unaccompanied by support, leads to ruin, and fullness, when unbalanced, leads to collapse. The true purpose of music (yuè, 月) lies in tempering joy. A gentleman finds modesty in his actions and humility in his heart, and it is through self-reduction and humility that music fulfills its purpose. Due to differences in regions, temperaments, and customs, one must incorporate various local practices and harmonize with the rhythms of nature, correcting the deficiencies of governance and moving public sentiment towards moral refinement.
When the Emperor personally visited the Hall of the Ancestors to observe the music, the people were influenced, washing away the impurities in their nature, embracing the healthy and wholesome aspects of humanity, thus refining their character. This is why it is said that when refined and elegant songs are recited, the people’s character improves. When impassioned calls or loud sounds arise, it stimulates the hearts of the scholars. The songs of Zheng and Wei, however, often led to improper thoughts. When the music aligns with human nature, all creatures, from birds to beasts, are moved; how much more will those with the Five Virtues and with love and hatred in their hearts be touched?
The methods of governance are flawed. Zheng’s music rose in prominence, and the lords of feudal states used their lineage to compete in fame, often emphasizing their superior musical traditions. Even Confucius, who could not coexist with the talented women of Qi in the state of Lu, left the political scene to reform the music, composing the ‘Five Odes’ to criticize contemporary affairs. However, his efforts to reform society were in vain. Day by day, these practices continued until the Warring States period, when feudal lords persisted in their indulgences, which ultimately led to their downfall, with their territories absorbed by the Qin.
The Second Emperor of Qin grew even more fond of using music as a form of entertainment. Chancellor Li Si advised, “Abandoning the principles in the ‘Book of Songs’ and the ‘Book of Documents’ and indulging in music and women is the reason why the wise ministers of the Yin dynasty, such as Zu Yi, were filled with dread; neglecting small faults and indulging in long nights of revelry led to the downfall of King Zhou of the Yin.” Zhao Gao added, “The music of the Five Emperors and Three Kings differs from each other, signifying a lack of continuity. Only through harmonious music can the Emperor and the people unite in joy and labor. Without such unity, the mutual benefits and the grace of governance cannot spread.” The Second Emperor agreed with Zhao Gao’s words.
After Emperor Gaozu of Han suppressed the rebellion of Prince of Huainan, he passed through Pei Commandery and composed the ‘Ode to the Three Marquises,’ which he ordered the children to sing. After Gaozu’s death, the ode continued to be sung during the four seasonal sacrifices to the ancestral temples. During the reigns of Emperor Hui, Emperor Wen, and Emperor Jing, the music remained unchanged, and the court continued to practice the old tunes.
Upon ascending the throne, the Emperor composed the ‘Song of the Sacrifices to the Ancestral Temples,’ with nineteen chapters, and ordered the imperial musician Li Yanni to compose the accompanying music. At that time, Confucian scholars who were familiar with the classics had to gather the masters of the Five Classics to explain the meanings of the songs, as they could not decipher the lyrics individually. Many of the song lyrics were drawn from the ‘Erya,’ a dictionary of ancient Chinese.
During the Han dynasty, the court frequently performed sacrifices to the Great One at Ganquan Palace on the first day of the first lunar month, beginning at dusk and ending at dawn. During these ceremonies, meteors would often streak across the night sky above the altar. Seventy children, both male and female, would sing together. In spring, the ‘Qingyang’ song was sung; in summer, the ‘Zhu Ming’ song; in autumn, the ‘Xi Miao’ song; and in winter, the ‘Xuan Ming’ song. These songs were widely spread, so their lyrics are not further recorded here.
One day, a divine steed was found in the Wa River, and a new tune was composed, called the ‘Song of the Great One.’ The lyrics stated: “The Great One’s blessing brought a heavenly steed, its sweat flowing like blood, its mouth dripping red foam. It galloped freely, covering thousands of miles—who can rival it? Only the dragon can be its companion.” Following this, the conquest of Dayuan brought a horse known as ‘Pu Shao,’ which was celebrated in a new song with the lyrics: “The heavenly steed came from the farthest west, traveling thousands of miles to the land of virtue, invoking the power of the gods to conquer foreign lands, crossing the desert sands, bringing all nations to submission.”
The Lieutenant General, Ji An, advised: “For every ruler, music should serve to continue the legacy of their ancestors and to influence the millions of people. Now that Your Majesty has acquired a horse, is it appropriate to compose poems and songs for sacrifices to the ancestors? How can the former Emperor and the people understand the meaning of these songs?” The Emperor, upon hearing this, fell silent, displeased. Chancellor Gongsun Hong said, “Ji An slanders the sacred court’s system, and his crime warrants the eradication of his entire family.”
The origin of music is rooted in the human heart. The movements of the heart are stirred by external objects. When the heart is affected by these objects, it is stirred and this internal shift is expressed through sound. Sounds harmonize with one another and transform accordingly; when they change in a specific method and pattern, they become music. When played with instruments and accompanied by dance, using implements like the ceremonial axe and feathered banners, it is considered as music (yuè, pronounced like “moon”). Thus, music originates from sound, and its foundation lies in the human heart being moved by external stimuli.
When the heart is touched by sorrow, the sound is rapid, shifting from high to low, from strong to weak; when the heart feels joy, the sound becomes slow and gentle; when the heart is filled with delight, the sound is expansive and light; when anger arises, the sound becomes harsh and forceful; when reverence is felt, the sound is clear and upright; when love emerges, the sound becomes soft and pleasant. These six states are not influenced by one’s character but by the emotional response to external events. Therefore, the ancients were especially cautious about the effects of external influences.
Rituals serve to guide the will, music to harmonize the voice, politics to unify actions, and punishment to prevent corruption. The ultimate purpose of rituals, music, laws, and politics is the same: to align the hearts of the people, leading to an era of great peace.
Sound originates in the human heart. When emotions stir the heart, they manifest as sound. Disjointed sounds combine to form structured melodies, known as music. In a time of peace, the sounds are filled with tranquility and joy, reflecting a harmonious government; in times of chaos, the sounds are filled with resentment and anger, marking a government in turmoil; in a kingdom on the verge of collapse, the sounds are full of sorrow and despair, with the people in hardship and hopelessness. The harmony of sound and politics are interconnected.
In the five sounds, the Gong represents the ruler, the Shang the minister, the Jiao the people, the Zhi (pronounced “zhi”) represents affairs, and the Yu represents things. If these five elements are in harmony, the nation will not fall into chaos. When the Gong sound is disturbed, the five sounds become dissonant, and the ruler becomes arrogant, neglecting governance. When the Shang sound is disturbed, the ministers and officials become ineffectual. If the Jiao sound is disturbed, the people’s anger will rise. If the Zhi sound is disturbed, the kingdom will be plagued with turmoil. If the Yu sound is disturbed, the national finances will dwindle. When all five sounds are off balance, it leads to a weakening of the state. The music of the states of Zheng and Wei during tumultuous times is akin to a faltering state; the music of the state of the dead, like that of the people wandering and rebelling, reflects a disintegrated society.
Music, at its core, is rooted in the heart and connected to ethical behavior. Those who understand only sound but not music are akin to animals; those who understand music but not its deeper meaning are common folk. Only the noble understand the true nature of music. Therefore, one must carefully examine sound to understand music, then study music to understand governance. The knowledge of music leads to a better understanding of moral conduct. Thus, knowing sound alone is insufficient for discussing music, and knowing music is insufficient for discussing the governance of a state. To truly understand music is to approach wisdom.
The essence of rituals and music can be derived from the heart, which is the essence of virtue. Virtue is the understanding and embracing of what is right. The grandeur of music does not lie in the size or complexity of the sound but in the depth of its meaning. Similarly, the grandeur of ritual feasts does not lie in the richness of the food but in the intention behind the ceremony. In the grand music of the Zhou dynasty temple, the instrument “Se” has a simple design and unsophisticated appearance, yet the music it creates holds boundless meaning. Likewise, in the ceremonial feasts, the food is simple, yet it contains deeper flavors beyond the taste.
The purpose of the ancient kings in establishing rituals and music was not to satisfy the senses, but to educate the people, guiding them towards a correct understanding of right and wrong, thus leading them to follow the path of virtue.
Humans are naturally inclined toward quietude, a basic part of human nature. When external stimuli provoke emotional shifts, this is a manifestation of human nature. Upon encountering external objects, the mind perceives them and forms feelings of like or dislike. If these feelings are not controlled internally, the external influences can overwhelm the individual, causing them to lose their moral compass. The endless temptations presented by the outside world, combined with uncontrolled desires, lead to the destruction of one’s moral sense. This can result in reckless behavior, deceit, immorality, and even rebellion.
The strong oppress the weak, the many impose force upon the few, the wise deceive the ignorant, and the brave torment the timid. Those who are sick suffer neglect, and the elderly, children, orphans, and widows are left without peace. These are the causes of great turmoil in the world. Therefore, the ancients devised rituals and music to regulate these behaviors, using rites to control mourning and burial practices, music to soothe the people, and ceremonies like weddings and communal feasts to reinforce the relationships between individuals. Rituals guide the people’s hearts, music harmonizes their spirits, and governance provides order, while punishments serve as deterrents. When these four elements—ritual, music, laws, and governance—are properly developed and harmonized, the ruler’s method of governing will be complete.
The characteristic of music (yue) is unity, while the characteristic of ritual (li) is distinction. Music fosters mutual love between people, while ritual cultivates mutual respect. If music becomes excessive and uncontrolled, it will blur the boundaries of social hierarchy and cause instability; if ritual is excessive and uncontrolled, it will cause divisions and discord among people. The purpose of both music and ritual is to harmonize human emotions and behaviors, to create order and respect within society, ensuring that the distinctions between the noble and the humble, the young and the old, are maintained. When the essence of ritual is achieved, social distinctions are preserved; when music is unified, harmony prevails, eliminating strife. In this way, music and ritual together guide people to distinguish between what is virtuous and what is not, correcting misdeeds through righteous behavior and punishing violence, ensuring the peaceful and orderly governance of the world.
Music originates from within the human heart, while ritual is imposed externally. Because music comes from the heart, it has the characteristic of calmness and inner peace. Ritual, on the other hand, is externally imposed and focuses on form and appearance. Therefore, great music is simple and unadorned, and great ritual is austere and humble. When music is performed well, the heart is free of complaints; when ritual is performed well, there is no contention. The saying “govern the world through courtesy and music” refers to the governance of the world through ritual and music. When the people are not violent and rebellious, and the rulers show respect and obedience to the emperor, military forces are not raised, punishments are not needed, and the people live without worry—this is when music has flourished. When the relationship between father and son is harmonized, the hierarchy between the young and the old is clarified, and people throughout the world respect each other, then ritual has been properly enacted by the emperor.
Great music, like heaven and earth, harmonizes all things; great ritual, like heaven and earth, regulates all things. Harmony allows things to grow and flourish; regulation provides the distinct rituals for honoring heaven and earth. In the human world, there are rituals and music, and in the spiritual realm, there are gods and spirits. Through these two, people are taught to respect each other, leading to universal mutual respect. Ritual requires mutual respect in all circumstances, and music expresses love in every form it takes. The sentiment of mutual respect and love in ritual and music is eternal, passed down from the wise rulers of the past, thus integrating ritual and music with the times, and ensuring the connection between their fame and virtue. Instruments like bells, drums, pipes, and drums are tools used in music; the movements of the body—bending, stretching, raising, lowering, and shifting—are the outward forms of music. The ceremonial vessels such as the fǔ (sacrificial vessel), guǐ (wine vessel), and zǔ (altar vessel), as well as the customs of ritual such as rising and descending, turning, and uncovering, are the tools used in ritual.
Understanding the meaning of ritual and music allows one to create them; those who only understand the outward forms can only record and follow the practices of past rulers, unable to create them anew. Those who can create are called sages, and those who can only record and follow are called learned. To know music is to understand the harmony of heaven; to know ritual is to understand the order of earth. Harmony allows for the growth of all things, while order allows for the distinction of all things. Music follows the pattern of heaven, and ritual follows the pattern of earth. If the regulation of ritual becomes excessive, it will lead to chaos due to the failure to distinguish between the noble and the humble; if music becomes excessive, it will lead to violence due to disharmony between the high and the low. Only by understanding the nature of heaven and earth can we correctly create ritual and music. The essence of music is the harmony between words and actions; it is an expression of love and joy. The essence of ritual is the balance and propriety between actions, and the form of ritual is respectful submission to order.
When music is applied to metal and stone, it is used for ceremonies, for honoring the gods, spirits, and ancestors, and for the emperor’s relationship with the people, without distinction. The emperor’s role in music and ritual is to embody the harmony between heaven and earth, and the regulation of the physical and spiritual realms. Thus, a ruler’s achievements in martial arts are reflected in music, and those in culture and governance are reflected in ritual. The greater the martial accomplishments, the more complete the music; the broader the civil achievements, the more detailed the ritual. For example, the martial music, represented by the instruments of war such as the drum and battle axe, praises the prowess of arms, but it is not complete music. Ritual places importance on culture, so the sacrifices are more focused on the atmosphere and the spirit rather than the richness of food. The five emperors did not continue the same music during their reigns, and the three kings each had their own distinct ritual systems. Excessive music leads to chaos, while insufficient ritual may leave important details unaddressed. Only a great sage can create music and ritual that are balanced, complete, and free of excess or neglect.
The sky is high, the earth is low, and all things are distinct; thus, ritual is the means by which the distinctions between all things are maintained. The air of the earth rises, and the air of heaven descends; the air of the earth is yin, and the air of heaven is yang. The interaction of these energies creates thunder, wind, and rain, which nourish all things and cause them to change with the seasons. Similarly, music brings about harmony, and ritual brings about order. In spring, life is born; in summer, life grows; in autumn, it is harvested; in winter, it is stored. These cycles reflect the principles of benevolence and righteousness, which are embodied in music and ritual. Music promotes harmony between people, and ritual maintains the proper distinctions and respect for the divine. Thus, the sage uses music to align with heaven and ritual to align with earth, ensuring that both are in harmony and order.
The growth and development of all things would not occur if they were not nurtured in a timely manner, and if there were no distinctions between men and women, chaos would arise. This is the will or intention of Heaven and Earth. Moreover, ritual and music permeate all things between Heaven and Earth, even the forces of Yin and Yang, and the spirits of the underworld are connected with them. The celestial bodies, like the sun, moon, and stars, possess a vast distance, and the great depths of mountains and rivers can be fully expressed through the principles of ritual and music. Music originates in the primordial period, the beginning of all things, while ritual appears after the formation of the world. That which is unceasing in motion is Heaven; that which is still and unchanging is Earth. Movement and stillness are the essence of all things between Heaven and Earth. Ritual and music mirror the principles of Heaven and Earth, which is why the sage kings could expound so deeply on these matters.
Shun once crafted a five-stringed zither to sing the melody of “South Wind”; since the time of Kui, music has been created to reward the virtuous feudal lords. Hence, the emperor’s music is meant to honor those who exhibit moral excellence. When virtue is abundant and the teachings are respected, the harvest is plentiful, and the seasons remain unaltered, music and dance are then presented as rewards. In a society where governance is harsh and the people labor intensely, fewer musicians are rewarded, the performance is shorter, and the musicians are more distanced from one another. In contrast, under peaceful and prosperous governance, more musicians are rewarded, the performance is longer, and the musicians are closer together. By observing the musical performances of the lords, one can discern the extent of their virtue, and by hearing their posthumous titles, one can judge the quality of their actions. The music of “Da Zhang” symbolizes the glorious virtues of Yao; the music of “Xian Chi” represents the complete and all-encompassing virtue of the Yellow Emperor; the music of “Shao” signifies Shun’s ability to continue Yao’s work; the music of the Xia Dynasty, known as “Xia,” indicates Yu’s effort to elevate the work of Yao and Shun; the music of Yin, “Da Hu,” and Zhou’s “Da Wu,” all describe the accomplishments of their respective rulers.
The natural order of Heaven and Earth dictates that when the seasons are not in accordance, illnesses arise; when wind and rain are excessive, famine occurs. Similarly, politics and education, like the seasons of the people, must be timely, or they will damage the world. Labor and industry, like the wind and rain, must be properly regulated, or they will result in fruitless toil. Thus, the ancient kings created music as a symbol of good governance. The duration and movement of the music performance symbolized the extent of governance’s virtue. Brewing wine and raising pigs is not intended to provoke trouble, but after wine and meat are consumed, drunken brawls and lawsuits increase, leading to chaos. Therefore, the ancient kings established etiquette surrounding alcohol consumption, with offerings and reciprocations. Through this system, hosts and guests could greet each other with respect, and even after a full day of drinking, no one would become excessively drunk. Only by observing such rituals could one ensure that food and drink were meant to unite and bring joy.
Music symbolizes moral character, while ritual serves to prevent excessive behavior. Thus, in moments of great sorrow or joy, there must be corresponding rituals to express mourning or celebration. The intensity of mourning or joy is determined by the prescribed rituals.
The nature of music is to express one’s feelings; the nature of ritual is to give back. Music’s purpose is to reflect the joy born from one’s inner emotions, while ritual’s purpose is to honor the achievements of one’s ancestors. The effect of music is to extol virtue, whereas ritual reflects how well one has won the hearts of the people, recalling the reasons behind their actions. Ritual is about reciprocation. For example, the “golden and jade chariot” that symbolizes the great road of a ruler originally belonged to the emperor; the “nine banners with dragon designs” originally belonged to the emperor; the “black and white sacred turtle used in divination” also originally belonged to the emperor; and the accompanying gifts of cattle and sheep all served as gifts from the emperor to feudal lords.
Music celebrates eternal themes of human emotion, while ritual displays immutable principles of the world. Music expresses the commonality in human feelings, while ritual highlights the distinctions between people. When music and ritual are in harmony, they guide human emotions from beginning to end. Music’s content is defined by its ability to return to its roots, evolving according to time; ritual’s essence lies in its clarity, honesty, and the rejection of deceit. The harmonious relationship between music and ritual allows one to align with the genuine and honest feelings of Heaven and Earth, transcending into the divine virtues that shape all things and establish the grand moral order of the family, state, and world.
Therefore, a wise ruler, if guided by music and ritual, can bring light to the world. By ensuring the harmonious alignment of all elements, Yin and Yang will follow their natural course, invigorating the world with life. This process will allow plants to flourish, seeds to sprout, birds to take flight, and animals to grow. Even in the case of birth, both the unborn and the egg will be preserved. This is the ultimate purpose and function of music.
Music is not merely the performance of grand orchestras or the sounds of string instruments and dances; these are only the outermost forms of music. The preparation of feasts, the arrangement of ceremonial vessels, and the exchanges of courtesies are only the surface of ritual, delegated to those responsible for managing these ceremonial duties. A musician skilled in the sounds of poetry plays his part in the lower positions, while a ritual master familiar with the rituals of ancestral sacrifices is positioned at the rear of the ceremony; a mourner skilled in funerary rites takes his place behind the host. This arrangement reflects that moral achievement places one in a higher position, while technical skill places one in a lower position. Thus, the ancient kings established a system of hierarchy, with prescribed roles for both ritual and music, in order to regulate society accordingly.
Music is a form of entertainment for the sage, and it serves to guide the hearts of the people towards virtue. Music has a profound influence on human nature and can transform societal customs, which is why the ancient kings made music an integral part of education.
Every person has inherent qualities such as temperament and intellect, but emotions like joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness are not constant. The heart of a person is moved by external influences, and it is through these changes that the true nature of one’s character is revealed. If a ruler’s heart is narrow and overly meticulous, with an insistence on excessive formality, the music that is produced will be weak and strained, leading to a populace filled with sadness, worry, and melancholy. On the other hand, if a ruler is generous and relaxed, unconcerned with trivialities, the music will be simple yet controlled, and the people will experience peace and contentment. A ruler who is harsh and impetuous will produce music that is energetic and expansive, and his people will become strong and resolute. A ruler who is upright and incorruptible will create music that is solemn and sincere, inspiring his people to be disciplined and respectful. A ruler who is magnanimous and harmonious will produce music that is smooth and balanced, fostering a sense of love and unity among his people. However, if a ruler is indulgent and immoral, the music will be chaotic and frivolous, unable to endure, and the people will be plagued by disorder and corruption.
Therefore, the ancient kings based the creation of music on the nature of human temperament, and they carefully examined the movements of the sun and moon, as well as the rituals and moral codes, to ensure that they were in harmony with the energies of Yin and Yang. This alignment was intended to guide people towards behaviors in accordance with the five constant virtues: ritual, righteousness, benevolence, wisdom, and trust. The music created was designed to ensure that the vigor of the strong was preserved, while the gentleness of the weak was protected. The strong should not become enraged, and the weak should not be filled with fear. The four aspects of Yin and Yang—strength and softness—should harmonize within the heart, manifesting in actions that are balanced and peaceful. This is why music was established within academic and institutional settings, to be taught and spread. Its rhythm was expanded and its ornamentation simplified, so that it could be a reflection of the ruler’s moral integrity. The various types of music were categorized into different instruments, tuned to match the appropriate pitch and the natural cycles of the five tones, symbolizing the moral alignment of actions. Through the music, relationships between people—whether close or distant, noble or humble, young or old, male or female—could be reflected in the sound. Hence, the ancient saying, “The principles of music are profound.”
Just as barren soil cannot produce healthy plants, or turbulent waters cannot nurture fish, so too, when the seasons are out of balance, life cannot thrive. In a world of disorder, rituals and moral codes are abandoned, and music becomes degenerate. During such times, the music will be sorrowful and undignified. Though it may still be called music, it will fail to bring peace. The rhythms will be aimless and disrespectful, lacking in harmony, and the people will be unable to return to simplicity and authenticity. Slow music suggests deceit, while fast music reveals a desire for self-indulgence. Both corrupt the virtuous temperament and destroy the peaceful virtues of the people. Thus, a noble person looks down upon such music.
Human temperament has two sides: one that is aligned with the natural order and one that resists it. The different influences we experience lead to different manifestations of these tendencies. When influenced by immoral and dissolute music, the rebellious nature is brought forth, leading to harmful outcomes and further indulgence in corrupt sounds. Conversely, when influenced by righteous and virtuous music, the harmonious nature is expressed, leading to positive effects and the creation of orderly and pleasant music. The interplay between vice and virtue, and the contrast between resistance and harmony, causes each to find its place. The principles that govern the world work in a similar manner, with everything responding to these influences.
Thus, the ruler in a high position must regulate his emotions, harmonize his heart and mind, and strive to cultivate virtuous behavior through righteous means. He must ensure that improper influences do not corrupt his senses, and avoid allowing immoral sounds and sights to sway his judgment. The ruler should prevent indulgent and unethical behaviors from entering the heart, ensuring that the body and mind align with the principles of “order” and “righteousness.” By cultivating such virtues, the ruler can use the music of the zither and the drum to further embellish the harmony of the state, bringing about the highest degree of benevolence and shining light on the divine virtues. The sound will resonate like the clarity of the sky, with rhythms like the vastness of the earth. The five tones will follow their natural cycles, just as the seasons repeat in their orderly progression. The movements of the dance will flow like the wind or rain, in perfect rhythm and unity.
Through this harmonious music, the people will understand their roles in society, not allowing confusion or disorder to prevail. Their hearing and vision will be clear, free from the corrupting influence of improper sounds and images. Their blood and energy will be balanced, and their inclinations towards violence will cease. The customs and practices of society will change, returning to simplicity, and peace and joy will spread across the land. This is the true meaning of music: it is the source of happiness, and through it, the ruler can bring about a just and harmonious world. The noble ruler enjoys music as a means to understand the great principles of the world, while the common people may delight in it to satisfy their desires. However, if personal desires are restrained by virtue, true happiness will be attained, and the harmony of the soul will be preserved. If morality is forgotten, and desires are allowed to override the principles of righteousness, true happiness will remain elusive. Therefore, the noble ruler must regulate his emotions and guide the people towards virtue through the promotion of music, thereby ensuring the moral development of the nation. When music is properly employed, it will lead the people to follow the path of virtue, and one can then observe the ruler’s character through the music he encourages.
Morality is the proper alignment of human nature, while music is the outward manifestation of that morality, its radiance shining forth. Instruments like metals, stones, silk, and bamboo are the tools used to produce music. Poetry expresses the mind’s intentions, while songs are the vocal renditions of poetry’s tones, and dance serves to enhance the appearance of the singer. The mind, voice, and form all have their roots in the heart, and are then expressed through poetry, song, and dance. Thus, emotions and sensibilities become profound and civilized, while the energy and spirit are abundant and capable of transformation. The harmonious energy born from the good and beautiful intentions within the heart is what causes words and sounds to emanate outwardly. Music, however, can never be false or misleading.
Music is born when the heart is moved by external influences; the sound is the outward expression of music. The nuances of melody—its twists, turns, and variations in strength, pause, and rhythm—serve as adornments for the sound. A noble person’s heart, moved by the moral essence as an external influence, finds joy in the voice as its external expression, and then refines the sound, crafting music from it. Thus, in the “Wu” music, the first strike of the drum serves to alert the people, followed by three ceremonial steps to signify the beginning of the campaign against King Zhou, the army’s arrival at Mengjin and retreat, and then a second attack against the tyrant. The dance flows swiftly, yet remains disciplined, its energy resolute and unyielding, with deep and profound meaning that is never obscure. From this, it is clear that the composer of “Wu” music (King Wu) harbored a sincere intention to overthrow the tyrant, while also remaining committed to achieving this goal through moral means. He adhered to these methods, unaffected by personal desire. Thus, the music not only depicts the events of the campaign but also expresses the righteous cause of defeating the immoral. By the end of the performance, King Wu’s virtue was further exalted, and the nobility, having observed this, were inspired to emulate his goodness, while the common people, having witnessed the punishment of the tyrant, were motivated to correct their own faults. Therefore, it is said, “The method of governing the people—music is the most important.”
A great noble says: “One cannot be without rituals and music, even for a moment.” The pursuit of using music to govern the heart naturally fosters qualities such as ease, integrity, affection, and trust. When these qualities arise in the heart, joy is the result, which brings tranquility to the body. Tranquility in turn leads to longevity, which inspires the same trust and reverence one would have towards the heavens, cultivating an awe that approaches the divine. When music governs the heart, it exudes an unspoken authority, and the people will naturally follow it; it remains calm, never enraged, and the people will respect it. Music, therefore, is used to govern the heart, while rituals are employed to govern one’s external conduct. Through the practice of rituals, one’s appearance becomes dignified and respectful, and this dignity radiates an aura of authority.
If the heart is not in harmony or joy for even a moment, deceitful and dishonest tendencies will seep in. If the external appearance lacks respect or dignity, a careless and indifferent attitude will take root. Therefore, music acts on the heart, while rituals influence the outer form. Music brings harmony and peace, while rituals promote respect and propriety. When the heart is peaceful and the outer appearance respectful, the people will not compete with the ruler, nor will they harbor any thoughts of neglect or disobedience. The moral radiance of music acts upon the heart, causing the people to obey; the demeanor cultivated by rituals is reflected outwardly, and the people will follow with respect. Hence, it is said, “Those who understand the principles of ritual and music and apply them to the world will face no difficulties.”
Music affects the heart, while rituals influence one’s outward conduct. Rituals are characterized by humility and restraint, while music promotes fullness and abundance. Rituals require humility and self-improvement, considering striving for progress as a virtue; music, on the other hand, encourages restraint and balance, viewing moderation as a virtue. If ritual is overly humble and lacks the drive for progress, it will wither and become difficult to practice; if music is overly abundant and lacks restraint, it will degenerate into indulgence. Thus, rituals emphasize reciprocity and the importance of gratitude, while music, with its repetitions and cycles, reflects the perpetual flow of time and energy. When rituals are met with gratitude, the heart finds joy; when music is repeated, the heart attains peace. The reciprocal nature of rituals and the cyclic quality of music share a common significance.
Music (yuè) represents happiness (lè), an essential element of human nature. When the heart is joyful, it is expressed through sound and action—this is an inevitable part of being human. The changes in human temperament and intentions are all manifested through sound and action. Therefore, one cannot live without joy, and joy cannot exist without form. If joy lacks proper guidelines, chaos will ensue. The ancient kings, desiring to avoid disorder, established refined and dignified sounds—such as those used in ceremonial music—to guide the people, ensuring that their voices would be joyful but not excessive, and that the goodness of music would be sustained without interruption. This method was fundamental in preventing the indulgence of desires and the intrusion of immoral influences through sound.
Thus, in the ancestral temples, when the music is played and heard by both rulers and subjects, it fosters harmony and respect; in the village communities, when elders and youth listen together, it brings peace and compliance; and in the family, when fathers and sons or brothers listen together, it promotes affection and unity. Music, therefore, is a means of carefully regulating the voice, creating harmonious sounds that, when paired with instruments like metal, stone, bamboo, and wood, embellish the rhythm and form of music, turning it into a beautiful composition. This harmony in music fosters unity among family members, rulers and subjects, and the entire community. This is the fundamental principle behind the creation of music by the ancient kings.
Therefore, when one listens to refined and dignified sounds, one’s intentions and spirit become expansive. When one holds the ceremonial weapons and practices the proper movements of dance—bending, stretching, and walking in harmony with the rhythm—one’s appearance becomes dignified. When one aligns the movements and music in perfect sync, the dance and the procession will be orderly and balanced. Thus, music is the alignment of heaven and earth, the pursuit of harmony in the heart, and an indispensable aspect of human nature.
Music was established by the ancient kings to embellish joy, while weapons of war were used to adorn the expression of anger. Thus, the ancient kings did not express joy or anger recklessly; their actions were orderly and regulated. When joyful, the world harmonized in peace; when angry, chaos trembled in fear. It can be said that the ancient kings brought ritual and music to their highest form.
Duke Wen of Wei once asked Zixia: “I wear the ceremonial cap of the state of Yan and reverently listen to the ancient music, yet I fear I may fall asleep. But when I listen to the music of Zheng and Wei, I never tire. Why does the ancient music have such a soporific effect, while the new music brings endless joy?”
Zixia replied: “The ancient music was composed with perfect symmetry, with movements that rise and fall in harmony. The melody is refined, balanced, and expansive, with instruments such as strings, bamboo, and bells all under the guidance of the drum, beginning with a deep strike and concluding with the sound of the bell. The rhythm is in sync with the dance, which is swift yet elegant, and never vulgar. The noble person, when speaking of ancient music, connects it to personal cultivation, managing the family, and governing the world. This is the role of ancient music. On the other hand, the new music is full of twists and turns, erratic and inconsistent. The sound is indulgent, leading to a state of mind that cannot break free from excess, and it is often accompanied by acrobats and clowns, blurring the distinction between men and women, without respect for hierarchical relations. The end of the music leaves no lasting impression, and it has no connection to the ancient ways. This is the nature of new music. The music you favor is not the virtuous, moral kind, but rather the kind that indulges in excess.”
Duke Wen responded: “What is the difference between music and sound?”
Zixia answered: “In ancient times, the heavens and earth followed a harmonious order, the seasons were in sync, the people were virtuous, the crops flourished, diseases were absent, and no disasters occurred. Everything happened in its proper time and place—this was called the Great Harmony. Then the sage rulers established rituals to guide familial and hierarchical relationships, and once these rituals were in place, the world was truly at peace. With the world at peace, the six musical scales were perfected, and the five tones were harmonized. Refined poetry and chants were composed and played on stringed and wind instruments—this is what we call Virtuous Sound, and it is the true music. The Book of Songssays: ‘The serene and peaceful sound of virtue shines forth, its righteousness illuminates all directions, benefiting all people. A virtuous ruler, like King Wen, leads with kindness, chooses what is good, and has the blessings of Heaven to pass on to his descendants.’ This is what is meant by virtuous sound. The music you prefer is not this kind of virtuous sound, but rather indulgent and excessive sound.”
Duke Wen asked: “How does indulgent sound come about?”
Zixia responded: “Indulgent sound can be categorized in several ways. The music of Zheng arises from disregarding ritual and virtue, leading to the corruption of the mind. The music of Song stems from an indulgence in sensual pleasures, causing the loss of moral strength. The music of Wei arises from hurried, exhausting labor, which exhausts the spirit. The music of Qi is a product of arrogance and deviation, which leads to prideful and unruly minds. All these forms of music promote indulgence and harm virtue, which is why they are not used in ceremonies. As the Book of Songs states: ‘The sound that is solemn and harmonious is what our ancestors would listen to.’ The word ‘solemn’ means respectful, and ‘harmonious’ means balanced. When respect and harmony are present, nothing can go wrong. A ruler, as the leader of the people, must simply be cautious of the display of his likes and dislikes. What the ruler favors, the subjects will follow, as the superior sets the example. The Book of Songs says: ‘To guide the people is as easy as leading ten men,’ which illustrates this idea. When the ruler is careful with his preferences, the sage rulers then introduced simple instruments—such as drums and bells—with unadorned tones that align with virtuous sound. They then created more refined instruments, such as bells and zithers, to complement and harmonize with these simpler sounds, creating a combination of elegance and substance. This music was used in rituals, ceremonies, and to distinguish ranks and duties, ensuring order and propriety.”
Zixia continued: “The sound of the bell has a sharp and commanding tone, used to set the pace and inspire courage in soldiers. The resonant sound of stone instruments is firm and unyielding, calling for moral clarity and an unflinching commitment to duty. The strings of a zither produce a mournful tone, which evokes a sense of integrity and discipline, inspiring one to pursue righteousness. The bamboo instruments, on the other hand, produce a jarring and chaotic sound that brings people together, making them gather in unity. The drums and cymbals are loud and exuberant, igniting the spirit of action and inspiring people to push forward. The noble person does not listen to these sounds idly; they are meant to resonate with their own intentions and spur them to act in harmony with what is needed at the moment.”
Thus, music is not merely an aesthetic experience, but a deep, powerful force that shapes the mind, the actions, and the very soul of the people.
Bian Mu Jia sat beside Confucius, and as they conversed casually, the topic turned to music. Confucius asked, “In the Wumusic, the drumming at the start serves as a warning to the audience. Compared to other pieces, its duration is particularly long. What does this signify?”
Bian Mu Jia replied, “It symbolizes the initial hesitation of King Wu, who, at the outset of his campaign against the tyrant King Zhou, struggled to gain the support of the various lords. He delayed in taking action.”
“The melody is repeated, echoing in a long, drawn-out lament. What is the meaning of this?” asked Confucius.
Bian Mu Jia responded, “It reflects a sense of uncertainty, a deep fear that the venture may not succeed.”
“And what about the vigorous, forceful movements at the start of the Wu dance? What do they signify?”
Bian Mu Jia answered, “That represents the moment when the time has come to act decisively, with no hesitation, to ensure victory is not missed.”
Confucius continued, “And the distinctive kneeling posture, with the dancer’s right leg on the ground—what does that indicate?”
Bian Mu Jia replied, “That is not part of the original Wu dance choreography.”
“The song is licentious, seemingly suggesting an improper desire for the Shang dynasty’s power. Why is that?”
Bian Mu Jia explained, “This is not the original tune of Wu music.”
Confucius asked, “If it is not the original melody, then what is it?”
Bian Mu Jia responded, “The institution responsible for the Wu music has lost its tradition. If not, it would mean that when King Wu composed this music, his mind and spirit had become weary and muddled.”
Confucius nodded, saying, “Yes, yes. I once heard Chang Hong say the same thing, and his words align with yours exactly.”
Bian Mu Jia stood, bowing respectfully and asked, “The drumming in Wu music is intended to warn the people, yet it delays for so long. My knowledge of this is limited to what you’ve explained, and Chang Hong shared the same interpretation. Now, I understand it is indeed as you say. But why the prolonged delay? Why not just wait a little longer?”
Confucius gestured for him to sit again, saying, “Allow me to explain it to you in more detail. Music is a vivid re-presentation of events that have already occurred. For instance, at the start of Wu music, the dancer holds a shield, standing still as a mountain, symbolizing the actions of King Wu at that time: his command for the soldiers to arm themselves fully, awaiting the response of the lords, ready to march. As the dance begins, it builds in intensity and strength, representing the resolve of Tai Gong Lu Wang, the commander of the battle, who aimed to destroy the Shang dynasty in one decisive strike. When the battle ends, the dancer kneels, symbolizing the peace and order that followed the victories of Duke Zhou and Duke Shao as they restored stability to the state.”
Confucius continued, “Furthermore, the dance progresses from south to north at the start, representing the march out from Chaoge to the north. The second round of music mirrors the fierce, life-or-death struggle in battle, while the third round celebrates the triumphant return to the south. The fourth round represents the submission of the southern states into the Zhou empire, while the fifth round symbolizes the division of Shanxi for governance, with Duke Zhou ruling to the east and Duke Shao to the west. The sixth round, where the dancers once again form a line, signifies respect for the Emperor. The Emperor stands between the generals, and with the clang of bells and drums, they boost the soldiers’ morale and prepare for battle on all fronts, overwhelming the enemy with immense might. The line formation is intended to expedite the success of the campaign. However, once the formation is set, they remain motionless, waiting for the arrival of the allied lords’ armies.”
Confucius looked at Bian Mu Jia and asked, “Have you never heard of what King Wu said when he swore the oath at Muye?”
After King Wu’s victory over the Yin dynasty, he restored the political order of the early Shang. Before even dismounting, he appointed descendants of the Yellow Emperor to Ji, descendants of Emperor Yao to Zhu, and descendants of Emperor Shun to Chen. Once dismounted, he granted lands to the descendants of Xia Yu in Qi, to the descendants of Yin’s Emperor Tang in Song, and added earth to the tomb of the virtuous minister Bi Gan of the Shang dynasty. He released Ji Zi, another virtuous minister who had been imprisoned by King Zhou of Shang, allowing him to oversee the officers responsible for ritual and music in the Shang court. If any worthy officers were found, they were restored to their former positions. King Wu abolished the cruel policies of King Zhou, raising the salaries of the scholars and officials.
Crossing the Yellow River, he journeyed westward into Shanxi, releasing his warhorses on the southern slopes of Mount Hua, ceasing to ride them. He distributed the draft oxen across the wild lands east of Mount Hua, in the Tao Lin region, no longer using them to carry military equipment. War chariots and armor were stored in the royal treasury, never to be used again. He turned weapons, like halberds and spears, with the blades inward and wrapped them in tiger skins, symbolizing that he would no longer rely on military force to resolve disputes. Generals who had made meritorious contributions were elevated to feudal lords, symbolically putting the chaos of war away in a quiver, thus ushering in an era of peace. This practice was known as “Establishing the Quiver.”
By then, all of the realm understood that King Wu had renounced the use of force. He disbanded the army and conducted the sacred ritual of shooting in the suburbs to seek out virtuous men. In the eastern suburbs, the ritual song was “Li Shou,” and in the western suburbs, the song was “Zou Yu.” The martial contests and archery competitions that had once been part of military training were now halted. The virtuous men across the land began to wear ceremonial robes with sashes and caps, with officials wearing wooden tablets at their waist. The more martial of the scholars would lay aside their swords, embracing the ways of peace. The emperor, in the Ming Hall, offered sacrifices to his ancestors, and the people understood the importance of filial piety. The court enacted the ritual of paying respects to the emperor, teaching the feudal lords how to be worthy ministers. The emperor himself plowed the sacrificial fields, showing the lords how to honor their ancestors.
These five practices (suburban archery, ceremonial dress, sacrifices in the Ming Hall, the ritual of paying respects, and plowing the sacrificial fields) were the most important means of educating the people. In addition, the Grand Academy supported the elders, and the emperor, wearing simple robes, personally slaughtered sacrificial animals, serving them with sauce for the elders to eat, while offering wine for them to drink. He danced in the presence of the elders, giving them joy, thus teaching the lords to respect their elders and value harmony. As a result, the teachings of the Zhou dynasty spread far and wide, with music and rituals complementing each other. For all these reasons, the long duration of the Wu music at its outset was surely not without purpose.
Zi Gong, having heard this, asked the music master Yi, “I’ve heard that different songs suit different temperaments. What kind of song would someone like me be best suited to sing?”
Master Yi replied, “I am but a humble musician, unworthy of advising on who should sing what. However, I will share what I know, and you may decide for yourself. Those who are magnanimous and calm, gentle and upright, are best suited to sing the Song; those who are open-minded, calm, detached, and trustworthy should sing the Da Ya; those who are respectful, frugal, and well-mannered are suited for the Xiao Ya; those who are upright, pure, and humble should sing the Feng; those who are forthright, straightforward, and kind-hearted are best suited to sing the Shang; and those who are gentle and capable of making decisions should sing the Qi.”
“A song reveals the heart of the singer, expressing their character. When one is moved by emotion and expresses their true feelings, the heavens respond. The seasons harmonize, the stars follow their course, and all things thrive. Shang, though passed down from the Five Emperors, was preserved by the Shang people to express their hearts and virtues, thus it is called the Shang song. Similarly, Qi was passed down through the Three Dynasties, and the Qi people recorded it, so it is known as the Qi song. Those who truly understand the meaning of the Shang song will often make decisive judgments; those who understand the Qi song will be able to benefit others. The one who repeatedly makes decisions shows courage; the one who helps others shows righteousness. Courage and righteousness—what else but song can maintain these qualities in a person? Thus, when the song reaches its climax, it is as if the singer is lifting a heavy weight; when the sound lowers, it is as if the singer falls straight down; when the melody bends, it is like a curve; when it becomes still, it is like a dry branch; when the melody is small, it is like a straight line; and when it is large, it resembles a hook. The sound lingers like beads dropping onto a plate. A song is a form of language, a long, sustained language. When something must be said, it is expressed through song; if words are insufficient, the singer uses long notes; if still not enough, the melody repeats itself in a loop; and if even that is insufficient, the singer’s movements become involuntary, as if dancing.”
This is what Zi Gong asked about music.
All music stems from the human heart, and there is a connection between heaven and mankind. Just as the reflection in a mirror resembles the object, so too do sounds correspond to their responses. Thus, those who do good are rewarded by heaven with blessings, while those who do evil are met with calamities. This is natural.
For instance, when Shun played the five-stringed zither and sang the Nan Feng poem, the world was well-governed. When King Zhou of Shang sang the tunes from the northern outskirts of Chaoge, he met with death and the fall of his kingdom. What was grand about Shun’s actions? What was narrow in King Zhou’s? The Nan Feng song, being a music of growth and harmony with the will of heaven, won the hearts of the people, leading to good governance. On the other hand, the morning songs of Chaoge, associated with defeat and degeneration, did not resonate with the people. King Zhou’s preference for such music alienated the lords and the common people, resulting in his downfall and the destruction of his kingdom.
During the reign of Duke Ling of Wei, there was an occasion when he was traveling to the state of Jin. When he reached the Puxi region, he stayed in a high-class guesthouse. In the middle of the night, he suddenly heard the sound of a zither being played. He asked his attendants, but they all replied that they hadn’t heard anything. So, he summoned a musician named Juan and said, “I hear the sound of a zither. When I asked those around me, they said they didn’t hear anything. This seems like something supernatural. Please listen carefully and record the tune.” Juan replied, “Very well.” He sat down, took out his zither, and, while listening to Duke Ling’s description, he began to play, recording the tune as he went. The next day, Juan reported, “I have written down each phrase, but I have not yet perfected the tune. It is difficult to form it into a full composition. May I stay another night and practice it a few more times?” Duke Ling agreed. After another night of practice, Juan said, “The piece is now ready.” They then continued on their journey to Jin and met with Duke Ping of Jin.
At a banquet held on the Terrace of Benevolent Gifts, Duke Ping joyfully entertained them. After drinking to their heart’s content, Duke Ling said, “On this journey, we have acquired a new piece of music. Allow me to play it for you to enhance the mood of the feast.” Duke Ping eagerly agreed and ordered Juan to sit beside the Jin court musician, Kuang, and begin playing. After just one verse, Kuang waved his sleeve to stop him and said, “This is the music of a fallen kingdom. Do not play any further.” Duke Ping asked, “Why do you say such a thing?” Kuang replied, “This tune was composed by Master Yan for King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty. After King Wu defeated King Zhou, Master Yan fled eastward, throwing himself into the Puxi River, where he took his own life. Thus, this tune must have originated near the Puxi River. Any state that first hears it will eventually be weakened.” Duke Ping said, “What I truly enjoy is music, and I hope to hear the rest.” Reluctantly, Kuang allowed Juan to finish playing.
When the music ended, Duke Ping said, “This is the most moving music I have ever heard. Is there anything more stirring?” Kuang replied, “Yes, there is.” Duke Ping eagerly asked, “Can we hear it?” Kuang replied, “Only one who has deep virtue and righteousness is worthy of hearing this tune. You are not yet ready to hear it.” Duke Ping insisted, “I am old now and no longer concerned about defeat or ruin. My only desire is to hear this music.” With no other choice, Kuang began to play.
As he played the first verse, dozens of dark cranes appeared, flying toward the hall. In the second verse, these cranes stretched their necks, calling out and flapping their wings, dancing in time with the music.
Duke Ping was overjoyed and rose to toast Kuang. After sitting back down, he asked, “Is there anything more touching than this?” Kuang replied, “Yes, there is. The music played by the Yellow Emperor during the ancestral sacrifices was even more moving. However, your virtue is too thin to hear it. If you do, it could bring ruin upon you.” Duke Ping said, “I am old. What do I care for ruin? I simply wish to hear the music.” With great reluctance, Kuang began to play.
As he played the first verse, white clouds appeared from the northwest. The second verse brought a great wind and storm, causing tiles from the roof to fly off, and everyone around fled in panic. Duke Ping, terrified, hid in the corridor. Afterward, the state of Jin suffered a severe drought for three years, with not a blade of grass growing.
Music, whether it brings fortune or misfortune, should not be played indiscriminately.
According to the historian Sima Qian: In ancient times, wise emperors did not play music merely for personal pleasure, indulgence, or to seek temporary joy. Those who aimed to educate and correct behavior always began with music. When music is correct, so too are the actions of those who follow it. Music was used to stimulate the blood, connect spirits, harmonize, and correct human hearts. The “Gong” sound stimulates the spleen and corrects the heart’s virtuous nature, the “Shang” sound stimulates the lungs and corrects the heart’s righteous nature, the “Jiao” sound stimulates the liver and encourages compassion, the “Zhi” sound stimulates the heart and promotes propriety, and the “Yu” sound stimulates the kidneys and fosters wisdom.
Thus, music is an internal means of promoting virtue, and externally, it distinguishes between the noble and the base. It is used in the royal court for ancestral rites and ceremonies, while it influences the common people’s character. The zither, for instance, measures eight feet and one inch, a sacred number that symbolizes the essence of measurement. The central string, the “Gong” string, is the ruler of all others. The “Shang” string is placed next to it on the right, and all other strings are arranged according to their size and length. This arrangement reflects the proper order of ruler and subjects.
Listening to the “Gong” sound makes one gentle and expansive; the “Shang” sound makes one righteous and loyal; the “Jiao” sound evokes sympathy and the ability to love; the “Zhi” sound makes one inclined to do good and give charity; the “Yu” sound fosters orderliness and respect for rituals.
Rituals are external forces that shape behavior, while music arises from within the human heart. Thus, a noble person can never be without ritual or music, for neglecting either will lead to unruly conduct. Music and ritual are the tools through which a gentleman cultivates his sense of righteousness. In ancient times, rulers and nobles listened to the sounds of bells and chimes in their courts, and the sound of zithers and stringed instruments accompanied them wherever they went, helping to cultivate their sense of righteousness and prevent indulgence. Indulgence begins with a lack of proper ritual, and so wise and virtuous rulers made sure that the ears of their people heard only noble, ceremonial music, their eyes saw only respectful rituals, their movements were full of dignity, and their speech was filled with virtue. This way, the gentleman’s words and actions were always in harmony with righteousness, and there was no chance for improper influences to enter.