Tang Shuyu of the state of Jin was a son of King Wu of Zhou and the brother of King Cheng of Zhou. When King Wu consorted with Shuyu’s mother, she dreamed that the heavens declared: “I shall bestow upon you a son named Yu, and I will grant him the land of Tang.” When the queen bore a child, she discovered, to her amazement, that the word “Yu” was inscribed upon his palm, and thus the child was named Yu.
After King Wu’s passing, King Cheng ascended the throne, and turmoil arose in Tang, prompting Duke of Zhou to extinguish the state of Tang. One day, while King Cheng and Shuyu were engaged in a playful game, the king presented a carved paulownia leaf shaped like a ceremonial jade tablet to Shuyu, declaring, “With this, I bestow upon you your fief.” Hist Yi then requested that an auspicious day be chosen for conferring upon Shuyu the title of feudal lord. King Cheng retorted, “I was merely jesting with him!” Yet Hist Yi insisted, “The words of the Son of Heaven are never idle. Once spoken, the chroniclers must record them faithfully, the rites executed in full, and a musical ode composed in celebration.” Consequently, King Cheng officially enfeoffed Tang to Shuyu. Tang lay to the east of the Yellow River and the Fen River, encompassing a hundred li in area; hence, Shuyu of Tang, of the Ji clan and styled Ziyu, was born.
Tang Shuyu’s son, Xie, became the Marquis of Jin. His own son, Ningzu, was honored as the Marquis Wu. Subsequently, Wu’s son, Furen, became the Marquis Cheng, and Cheng’s son, Fu, ascended as the Marquis Li. Li’s son, Yijiu, was titled the Marquis Jing. From the era of Marquis Jing onward, one may infer the chronology, though no dates were recorded for the five generations from Tang Shuyu to Marquis Jing.
In the seventeenth year of Marquis Jing (842 BC), under the despotic and brutal reign of King Li of Zhou, the people stirred in rebellion; with King Li fleeing to Zhi, the ministers assumed governmental responsibilities, an episode thus termed the “Gonghe” (Collective Rule).
In the eighteenth year (841 BC), upon the passing of Marquis Jing, his son, Si Tu of Marquis Li, acceded to the throne. In the fourteenth year of Marquis Li (827 BC), King Xuan of Zhou had just ascended the throne. In the eighteenth year (823 BC), Marquis Li died, and his son, Ji, known as Marquis Xian, took the throne. In the eleventh year of his reign (812 BC), Marquis Xian passed away, and his son, Fei Wang, ascended as Marquis Mu.
In the fourth year of Marquis Mu’s reign (808 BC), he wedded a noblewoman of Qi surnamed Jiang as his consort. In the seventh year (805 BC), Marquis Mu campaigned against the territory of Tiao Di. In that same year, his consort bore him a crown prince named Qiu. In the tenth year (802 BC), a successful campaign against Qianmu was launched, thereby establishing his meritorious achievements. Soon after, Marquis Mu had another son, whom he named Chengshi. A Jin courtier commented, “The names bestowed by the sovereign are most peculiar indeed! The crown prince is named Qiu, which signifies enmity, while the younger son is called Chengshi, a title suggestive of achievement and renown. Although the names are self-appointed, providence governs all things. Now, with the names of the legitimate heir and the concubine’s son diametrically opposed, can Jin avoid chaos in the future?”
In the twenty-seventh year (785 BC), Marquis Mu passed away, and his younger brother, Shang Shu, usurped the throne, forcing Crown Prince Qiu into exile. In the third year of Shang Shu’s reign (782 BC), King Xuan of Zhou died. In the fourth year (781 BC), Crown Prince Qiu, leading his supporters, attacked Shang Shu, deposing him and establishing himself as the ruler—this was the advent of Marquis Wen.
In the tenth year of Marquis Wen’s reign (771 BC), King You of Zhou, in his debased and misguided ways, was slain by the Quanrong, prompting the Zhou royal house to flee eastward. It was around this time that Duke Xiang of Qin began to be recognized among the feudal lords.
In the thirty-fifth year (746 BC), Marquis Wen, Qiu, died, and his son, Bo of Marquis Zhao, ascended the throne.
In the first year of Marquis Zhao’s reign (745 BC), he enfeoffed Quwo to his brother, Chengshi, the same territory larger than Yicheng, the capital of Jin. Chengshi, now enfeoffed in Quwo, was known as Duke Huan Shu. A collateral descendant of Marquis Jing, Luan Bin, served as his aide. At that time, Duke Huan Shu, then aged 58, was revered for his virtue, and the people of Jin flocked to him. A noble remarked, “The turmoil of Jin now originates in Quwo. With the eminence of the lesser now eclipsing that of the founder and having won the hearts of the people, what further cause is there for chaos?”
In the seventh year (739 BC), the minister Pan Fu of Jin assassinated the ruler Marquis Zhao in order to welcome Duke Huan Shu of Quwo. Duke Huan Shu too aspired to move to the Jin capital; however, the people of Jin marshaled their forces against him. Following his defeat, he retreated to Quwo. In response, the Jin people collectively enthroned Marquis Zhao’s son, Ping, as their ruler—this was known as Marquis Xiao. Marquis Xiao subsequently executed Pan Fu.
In the eighth year of Marquis Xiao’s reign (732 BC), Duke Huan Shu of Quwo passed away, and his son, Shan, succeeded him, becoming the Lord of Quwo Zhuang. In the fifteenth year of Marquis Xiao’s rule (725 BC), Lord of Quwo Zhuang killed King Xiao of Jin at Yicheng. In retaliation, the people of Jin attacked Lord Quwo Zhuang, forcing him to retreat back to Quwo. The Jin subjects then installed King Xiao’s son, Xi, as their ruler—this was the advent of Marquis E.
In the second year of Marquis E’s reign (722 BC), Duke Yin of Lu had just ascended his throne.
In the sixth year (718 BC), Marquis E passed away. Upon hearing of the demise of Marquis E, Lord Quwo Zhuang mobilized forces to attack the Jin capital. King Ping of Zhou dispatched Duke Guo with an army to quell Lord Quwo Zhuang, who then retreated to defend Quwo. The Jin people subsequently enthroned Marquis E’s son, Guang, as their ruler—this was known as Marquis Ai.
In the second year of Marquis Ai’s reign (716 BC), Lord Quwo Zhuang died, and his son, known as “Cheng,” assumed his position, becoming the Lord of Quwo Wu. In the sixth year of Marquis Ai’s rule (712 BC), the people of Lu assassinated their own ruler, Duke Yin. In the eighth year (710 BC), Jin launched an invasion of Xingtin. The inhabitants of Xingtin, in concert with Lord Quwo Wu, devised a plan; and in the ninth year (709 BC), they marched to the banks of the Fen River to attack Jin, capturing Marquis Ai. In response, the people of Jin installed Marquis Ai’s son, Xiao, as their ruler—this was known as Marquis Xiaozi.
In the first year of Xiaozi’s reign (709 BC), Lord Quwo Wu orchestrated the assassination of the captured Marquis Ai by ordering Han Wan to execute him. Consequently, Quwo grew ever mightier, and Jin found itself powerless to oppose.
In the fourth year of King Xiaozi’s reign (706 BC), Lord Quwo Wu deceived King Xiaozi into ordering his own assassination. King Huan of Zhou then dispatched Duke Guo Zhong to suppress Lord Quwo Wu, who fled back to Quwo, while Jin installed Marquis Ai’s brother, Man, as their new ruler.
In the fourth year of Marquis Man’s reign (703 BC), the state of Song captured Zhai Zhong of the state of Zheng and forced him to install Tu as Zheng’s ruler. In the nineteenth year of Marquis Man’s reign (688 BC), the Qi minister Guan Zhifu assassinated his own sovereign, Duke Xiang of Qi.
In the twenty-eighth year of Marquis Man’s rule (679 BC), Duke Huan of Qi began his hegemony. Lord Quwo Wu attacked Marquis Man, annihilating Jin and seizing its treasured regalia to bribe King Li of Zhou. King Li, in turn, appointed Lord Quwo Wu as the ruler of Jin, conferring upon him the status of a feudal lord. Thus, Lord Quwo Wu appropriated the entire territory of Jin for himself.
Having reigned for thirty-seven years, Lord Quwo Wu finally adopted the title of Marquis Wu of Jin. He then commenced the relocation of the capital to the traditional heartland of Jin. Combined with his previous tenure in Quwo, his reign spanned a total of thirty-eight years.
Duke Wu claimed to be the great-grandson of the late Lord Mu of Jin and the grandson of Huan Shu of Quwo. Huan Shu was the first to be enfeoffed in Quwo. Duke Wu was the son of Zhuang Bo. From the time Huan Shu was first enfeoffed in Quwo until Duke Wu overthrew the state of Jin, a total of sixty-seven years had passed. Ultimately, he supplanted Jin and became a feudal lord. Duke Wu ruled as the new ruler of Jin for two years before passing away, having reigned for a total of thirty-nine years, including his years in Quwo. His son, Duke Xian of Jin, ascended the throne.
In the first year of Duke Xian’s reign (676 BCE), King Hui of Zhou was attacked by his brother Tui, forcing him to flee to the city of Liyi in the state of Zheng.
In the fifth year (672 BCE), Duke Xian launched a campaign against the Lirong tribes and captured the sisters Li Ji and her younger sibling. Enamored by their beauty, he showered them with favor.
In the eighth year (670 BCE), the high-ranking official Shi Wei advised Duke Xian: “Jin has too many royal sons. If they are not eliminated, turmoil is inevitable.” Consequently, Duke Xian ordered the execution of all the princes and began constructing the fortified city of Ju, renaming it Jiang, establishing it as the capital. In the ninth year (669 BCE), many princes fled to the state of Guo. In response, Guo waged war against Jin but failed to achieve victory. In the tenth year (668 BCE), when Jin considered attacking Guo, Shi Wei counseled, “Let us wait for them to descend into their own internal strife.”
In the twelfth year (666 BCE), Li Ji gave birth to Xi Qi. Duke Xian, intending to depose the crown prince, declared, “Quwo is the ancestral temple of our forebears, while Pu is near Qin, and Qu is close to the Di people. If the princes are not stationed in these regions, I will remain deeply uneasy.” Thus, he dispatched Crown Prince Shen Sheng to Quwo, Prince Chong’er to Pu, and Prince Yiwu to Qu, while he himself remained in Jiang with Xi Qi. The people of Jin recognized that this meant the crown prince would not ascend to the throne.
Shen Sheng’s mother, Qi Jiang, was the daughter of Duke Huan of Qi and had long since passed away. His full sister had married Duke Mu of Qin. Chong’er’s mother was a woman of the Di tribe, of the Hu clan, while Yiwu’s mother was her younger sister. Duke Xian had eight sons in total, among whom Shen Sheng, Chong’er, and Yiwu were renowned for their virtue and wisdom. However, after the arrival of Li Ji, he began to estrange himself from these three.
In the sixteenth year (662 BCE), Duke Xian established two military divisions: he personally commanded the Upper Army, while Crown Prince Shen Sheng led the Lower Army. Zhao Su was the charioteer, and Bi Wan served as the right-flank protector. Together, they launched successful campaigns, subjugating the states of Huo, Wei, and Geng. Upon returning, Duke Xian ordered the construction of a city for Shen Sheng in Quwo, granted Geng to Zhao Su, and awarded Wei to Bi Wan, elevating them to the rank of noble ministers. Shi Wei remarked, “The crown prince will never be king. He has already been assigned a separate capital and been given the rank of high minister. His official position has been raised to its peak—how can he still ascend to the throne? He should flee now, lest disaster befall him. If he follows the example of Wu Taibo, would he not gain a noble reputation?” The crown prince, however, refused to heed this advice.
The court diviner, Guo Yan, foretold, “Bi Wan’s descendants will flourish greatly. ‘Wan’ signifies completeness, and ‘Wei’ is a name of grandeur. Bestowing Wei upon Bi Wan is a sign of divine favor. The Son of Heaven commands a hundred million subjects, while a feudal lord commands ten thousand. With such an illustrious name and the completeness it signifies, his lineage will certainly thrive.” Previously, Bi Wan had consulted an oracle regarding his official prospects and had drawn the “Zhun Hexagram,” which transformed into the “Pi Hexagram.” The diviner Xin Liao interpreted, “This is auspicious. ‘Zhun’ represents solidity, while ‘Pi’ signifies affinity—nothing could be more favorable. His descendants will undoubtedly prosper.”
In the seventeenth year (661 BCE), Duke Xian ordered Crown Prince Shen Sheng to lead an expedition against Dongshan. The official Li Ke objected, saying, “The crown prince’s duty is to offer sacrifices to the ancestral temple and inspect the ruler’s meals, ensuring the sustenance of the state. This is why he is called the Heir Apparent. When the ruler leaves, the crown prince should remain as regent. If another acts as regent, the prince should accompany the ruler, serving as the Vice Commander in campaigns and as the Overseer in governance. Such is ancient tradition. A military commander must be singularly focused on strategy, and issuing orders is the responsibility of the ruler and his chief ministers. This is not the role of the heir apparent. If the prince commands an army, he must obey his general’s orders, yet as heir, he reports only to the ruler, undermining his authority. If he acts independently, he risks being seen as unfilial. Therefore, the legitimate successor should never command an army. Appointing the crown prince to this role is a misallocation of duty. Without true authority, how can he lead?”
Duke Xian responded, “I have many sons; I do not know whom to name as heir.” Li Ke gave no reply and withdrew. He then met with the crown prince, who asked, “Will I be deposed?” Li Ke advised, “Your Highness, strive to fulfill your duties. Being entrusted with an army, your concern should be your performance, not the risk of being deposed. What you should fear is failing in filial piety, not in securing the throne. If you cultivate virtue and refrain from blaming others, you may avert disaster.”
Crown Prince Shen Sheng led the army as ordered. Duke Xian had him wear robes of contrasting colors and a golden ornament. Li Ke, feigning illness, did not accompany him. The prince then embarked on his campaign against Dongshan.
In the nineteenth year (659 BCE), Duke Xian declared, “When our forebears, Duke Zhuang and Duke Wu, quelled the turmoil in Jin, the state of Guo repeatedly aided our enemies and harbored fugitive princes. If we do not eliminate them now, they will be a lasting threat to our descendants.”
Thus, he had Xun Xi drive a chariot drawn by Qu Chan’s four prized horses to request passage through the state of Yu. Yu agreed, allowing Jin to launch an attack on Guo, capturing the city of Xiayang before returning home.
Duke Xian privately confided in Li Ji, saying, “I wish to depose the crown prince and replace him with Xi Qi.” Li Ji feigned distress and wept, saying, “The crown prince has long been established. The feudal lords recognize him, and he has repeatedly commanded armies, winning the people’s loyalty. How can you depose the rightful heir for my son? If you insist, I shall end my life.”
Outwardly, Li Ji praised Shen Sheng, but in secret, she slandered him, plotting to secure the throne for her own son.
In the twenty-first year (657 BCE), Li Ji told the crown prince, “The king once dreamed of Qi Jiang. You should immediately go to Quwo to offer sacrifices to your mother and then present the sacrificial meat to the king upon your return.” The crown prince hurried to Quwo to perform the rites. When he returned to the capital of Jin, he prepared to present the sacrificial meat to Duke Xian. However, the duke was out hunting, so the prince left the meat in the palace.
Li Ji secretly ordered someone to poison the meat. Two days later, when Duke Xian returned from the hunt, the palace chef served him the sacrificial meat. Just as he was about to eat, Li Ji intervened, saying, “This meat has traveled from afar; it should be tested first.” The chef threw the meat onto the ground, and the earth suddenly bulged. Then, he fed the meat to a dog, which died instantly. When he gave it to a eunuch, the eunuch also perished.
Li Ji wept and exclaimed, “How cruel the crown prince is! If he dares to plot against his own father just to seize power, how could anyone else be safe? Besides, you are already old, Your Highness—how many more years do you have left? And yet, the prince is so impatient to see you dead!”
She continued, “The reason the crown prince did this is nothing more than my presence and my son, Xi Qi. We would rather go into exile in another country or end our lives early than wait for him to slaughter us. When you first considered deposing him, I opposed it, but now I see that I was gravely mistaken.”
Upon hearing these accusations, the crown prince fled to Xincheng. Duke Xian, furious, executed the prince’s tutor, Du Yuankuan. Someone advised the prince, “It was Li Ji who poisoned the meat. Why not go and explain yourself?”
The crown prince sighed, “My father is old. Without Li Ji, he will not sleep soundly or eat in peace. If I reveal the truth, he will be enraged with her. I cannot bear that.”
Another person urged him, “Then flee to another state before it is too late!”
But the prince replied, “If I run away under such a grave accusation, who would take me in? I might as well end my own life.”
On the day Wushen in the twelfth month, the crown prince Shen Sheng took his own life in Xincheng.
At that time, Chong’er and Yiwu came to pay their respects to the ruler. Someone warned Li Ji, “These two princes resent you for framing the crown prince.” Li Ji grew terrified and once again slandered them to Duke Xian, saying, “Shen Sheng poisoned the sacrificial meat, and these two princes knew about it beforehand.”
Upon hearing this, Chong’er and Yiwu feared for their lives. Chong’er fled to Pu, while Yiwu escaped to Qu. Both fortified their respective cities against potential threats. Earlier, Duke Xian had ordered Shi Wei to construct city walls in Pu and Qu for the two princes, but the fortifications remained incomplete. Yiwu reported this to the duke, who grew angry with Shi Wei.
Shi Wei pleaded, “The borderlands have few bandits; why must we rush to build these walls?” After withdrawing, Shi Wei composed a song: “The fox-fur cloak is disheveled; a state has three rulers—whom shall I serve?” Eventually, he completed the walls. After Shen Sheng’s death, both princes fortified their cities in self-defense.
In the twenty-second year (656 BCE), Duke Xian, displeased that the two princes had left without bidding him farewell, suspected them of conspiring against him and sent troops to attack Pu.
In Pu, a eunuch named Bo Di urged Chong’er to commit suicide. Instead, Chong’er climbed over the city walls and fled. Bo Di pursued him and managed to cut off his sleeve, but Chong’er successfully escaped to the Di tribes. Duke Xian then dispatched forces against Qu, but the city held firm and was not taken.
That same year, the state of Jin sought passage through Yu to attack Guo. The Yu official Gong Zhiqi advised the Duke of Yu, “Do not grant them passage, or Yu will be doomed.” The Duke of Yu dismissed the warning, saying, “Jin and Yu share the same ancestral lineage. Surely, they would not turn against us.”
Gong Zhiqi countered, “Taibo and Zhong, the forebears of Wu and Yu, were sons of Grand Duke Wang. Taibo relinquished his claim to the throne and fled, while Guo Zhong and Guo Shu, sons of King Ji, served King Wen with great merit. Their deeds are recorded in the royal archives. If Jin has no qualms about destroying Guo, why would they spare Yu? Besides, is Jin closer to Yu than to the houses of Huan Shu and Zhuang Bo? Those families had committed no crimes, yet Jin exterminated them. The relationship between Yu and Guo is like lips to teeth—when the lips are gone, the teeth will be exposed to the cold.”
But the Duke of Yu ignored the warning and allowed Jin to pass. Seeing the danger ahead, Gong Zhiqi fled Yu with his entire family. That winter, Jin annihilated Guo, forcing Duke Chou of Guo to flee to the Zhou capital. On their return journey, the Jin army turned on Yu, capturing the Duke of Yu along with his ministers, Jing Bo and Bai Li Xi. These prisoners were sent as attendants for Qin Muji, daughter of Duke Xian, as part of her dowry. Jin also took charge of Yu’s ancestral sacrifices.
Xun Xi, a Jin minister, retrieved the prized horses that Duke Xian had once gifted to the Duke of Yu. When presenting them, he remarked, “The horses are still yours, Your Highness, though they, too, have aged.” Duke Xian laughed, “Indeed, the horses are mine—but what a pity they have grown old!”
In the twenty-third year (655 BCE), Duke Xian ordered Jia Hua and his forces to attack Qu. The city’s inhabitants fled, and Yiwu prepared to escape to the Di tribes. Ji Rui advised him, “That is not wise. Chong’er is already there. If you go as well, Jin will surely send troops against the Di, and fearing Jin’s might, they may turn against you. It is better to flee to Liang. Liang is near Qin, and Qin is powerful. When our ruler passes away, you may seek Qin’s aid to reclaim your position.”
Thus, Yiwu fled to Liang.
In the twenty-fifth year (653 BCE), Jin waged war against the Di. The Di, in support of Chong’er, counterattacked from Niesang, forcing the Jin forces to retreat.
During this period, Jin continued to grow in strength. To the west, it extended its borders beyond the Yellow River, bordering Qin. To the north, it reached the Di territories, and to the east, it secured the lands within the bend of the river.
Meanwhile, Li Ji’s sister gave birth to Daozi.
In the twenty-sixth year (652 BC) during the summer, Duke Huan of Qi hosted an extravagant alliance ceremony with the feudal lords at Kuiqiu. Duke Xian of Jin, delayed by illness and en route to Kuiqiu, encountered the Zhou minister Zai Kong, who remarked, “Duke Huan of Qi has grown ever more haughty; rather than diligently cultivating virtuous governance, he schemes to extend his conquests far and wide, much to the discontent of the other lords. It would be best for you not to attend—Duke Huan cannot inflict any harm upon Jin.” Coupled with Duke Xian’s fragile state of health, he chose to return to Jin.
Before long, as Duke Xian’s condition worsened, he confided to Xun Xi, “I intend for Xi Qi to inherit the throne; yet he is but a youth, and the ministers are not inclined to obey him. I fear discord may ensue—can you secure his succession?” Xun Xi replied, “I can.” When asked, “On what guarantee?” Xun Xi responded, “Should you be reborn after your passing, I shall still remain unashamed for having honored my promise. This shall serve as my bond.” Thus, Duke Xian entrusted Xi Qi to Xun Xi’s care. Assuming the role of state chancellor, Xun Xi oversaw the governance of the realm. In the autumn month of September, Duke Xian died.
At that time, Li Ke and Pi Zheng, eager to welcome Chong Er back and armed with the insurgents aligned with the three princes, queried Xun Xi, “With three discontented factions poised to rise—and with the aid of Qin from without and the people of Jin from within—what is your plan?” Xun Xi solemnly replied, “I cannot betray the promise made to my late sovereign.” In October, while the state was still in mourning for Duke Xian, Li Ke had Xi Qi slain. Distraught and contemplating suicide, Xun Xi was dissuaded by voices urging that Xi Qi’s younger brother, Dao Zi, be installed instead, with Xun Xi acting as his advisor. Consequently, Dao Zi was enthroned and Duke Xian was properly interred. Yet, in November, Li Ke murdered Dao Zi in the court, and Xun Xi, stricken with grief and guilt, took his own life. As the sages have opined, “Just as a blemished white jade can be polished to restore its luster, but a misworded utterance cannot be retracted,” so it was with Xun Xi—he remained true to his vow.
In earlier days, when Duke Xian had planned to campaign against Li Rong, divination from tortoise shells had forewarned that “slanderous words bring calamity.” After Li Rong’s defeat and the capture of Li Ji—whom Duke Xian dearly favored—disorder was sown within Jin.
Meanwhile, Li Ke and his cohorts had assassinated both Xi Qi and Dao Zi, dispatching envoys to the state of Di to fetch Prince Chong Er, with the intention of enthroning him. However, Chong Er demurred, stating, “I have already defied my father’s command by fleeing Jin, and now, with his interment marred by improper rites, how could I dare assume the throne? I beg you, ministers, to consider another candidate.” The envoys relayed his refusal to Li Ke, who then dispatched agents to the state of Liang to secure Yi Wu instead. Yet, upon his arrival in Jin, Yi Wu encountered objections from Lü Sheng and Xi Rui, who argued, “How can a prince from abroad be considered when a rightful heir remains in our midst? It would be hard for anyone to believe such a maneuver. Unless you venture to Qin to leverage its might in reclaiming Jin, the risks are grave.” Consequently, Yi Wu commissioned Xi Rui to lavish Qin with substantial gifts and stipulated, “Should I be restored to Jin, I shall cede all the lands west of the Yellow River to Qin.” He also sent Li Ke a letter proclaiming, “If fortune permits my enthronement, I shall bestow upon you the city of Fenyang.” In response, Duke Miu of Qin dispatched an army to escort Yi Wu back to Jin.
News of the internal strife in Jin reached Duke Huan of Qi, who then led his own lords into Jin. At that juncture, Qin’s forces and Yi Wu had already entered Jin; Qi, in turn, entrusted Xi Peng to join forces with Qin in escorting Yi Wu back, whereupon he was installed as the ruler of Jin—known henceforth as Duke Hui. Duke Huan of Qi, having completed his mission in Gaoliang within Jin, returned to his own state.
In the first year of Duke Hui’s reign (650 BC), he sent Pi Zheng to offer an apology to the Qin ruler, stating, “Once I promised you the lands west of the Yellow River. Now, by fortune, I have been restored to the throne of my homeland. My ministers still murmur, ‘These lands were inherited by our forefathers; you, having fled, had no right to promise them to Qin.’ Though I have struggled mightily, I have failed; hence, I must apologize to Qin.” At the same time, Duke Hui refused to cede the city of Fenyang to Li Ke, instead seizing control of his considerable power. In April, King Xiang of Zhou dispatched Zhou’s Duke Ji Fu to meet with the ministers of Qi and Qin, and together they visited Duke Hui of Jin. Fearing that Li Ke might incite another coup due to Chong Er’s exile, Duke Hui ordered Li Ke’s execution, remarking, “Without you, Li Ke, I would never have been able to ascend the throne. And yet, you have slain two dukes and a minister—how can you expect to reign?” Li Ke retorted, “Unless the past is swept away, how can a new order arise? If you truly wish to slay me, you will find no dearth of excuses. I shall obey your command.” And with that, Li Ke plunged his sword into himself and ended his life. As for Pi Zheng, his mission to Qin for an apology had kept him from returning, sparing him from the same fate.
In due course, the Jin ruler re-interred Crown Prince Shen Sheng in accordance with the proper rites. In the autumn, Hu Tu journeyed to Quwo and encountered the spectral presence of Shen Sheng. The ghost invited him to share the chariot and revealed, “Yi Wu has behaved with utter insolence. I shall petition the Celestial Emperor to deliver the entire state of Jin into Qin’s hands; Qin will then enshrine me in their rites.” Hu Tu cautioned, “I have heard that the deities do not partake in rites not observed by their own kin. In that case, would your sacrificial honors not be nullified? Ponder this carefully!” Shen Sheng replied, “Very well, I shall petition the Celestial Emperor once more.” Ten days later, at the western edge of the new city, a diviner manifested Shen Sheng’s visage, who proclaimed, “The Celestial Emperor has decreed punishment upon the guilty—they shall be utterly defeated at Hanyuan.” In response, children sang a lament, “The Crown Prince’s re-interment is complete; in fourteen years, Jin shall no longer flourish—the glory belongs to his elder brother.”
Subsequently, Pi Zheng was dispatched to Qin. Upon learning of Li Ke’s demise, he informed Duke Miu of Qin, “Lü Sheng, Xi Cheng, and Ji Rui indeed balk at offering Qin lands west of the Yellow River as bribes. If we could secure for them a sufficient bounty and persuade them to expel the Jin ruler and restore Chong Er to his rightful place, success would be assured.” Duke Miu consented, and together with Pi Zheng, they returned to Jin, bribing the three with lavish gifts. However, the three then murmured, “With such abundant wealth and sweet words, it is evident that Pi Zheng has betrayed us to Qin.” In consequence, they killed Pi Zheng, Li Ke, and seven high-ranking officials allied with Pi Zheng. Pi Zheng’s son, Bao, fled to Qin and implored the Qin ruler to wage war against Jin, but Duke Miu declined to heed his entreaties.
After Duke Hui ascended the throne, he violated the agreement to cede territory to Qin and to grant the fief to Likel, and he even executed the minister of the “Seven-Chariot” rank—actions that left the people of Jin utterly discontented.
In the second year (649 BCE), the Zhou court dispatched Duke Zhao to pay his respects to Duke Hui of Jin. However, Duke Hui’s haughty and imperious manners provoked Duke Zhao to deride him.
In the fourth year (647 BCE), as a devastating famine struck Jin, the state petitioned Qin to purchase grain. Duke Miao of Qin inquired of Baili Xi, who replied, “Natural calamities spare no nation; it is the duty of a state to render aid in times of disaster. We must help Jin.” Yet Bao, the son of Pi Zheng, retorted, “Then attack Jin!” Duke Miao responded, “Though the ruler of Jin may indeed be culpable, what blame can be laid upon the common people?” Ultimately, Qin sold grain to Jin, with supplies streaming continuously from You to Jiang.
In the fifth year (646 BCE), when Qin itself was stricken by famine and sought to procure grain from Jin, the ruler of Jin convened his ministers. Qing Zheng asserted, “You ascended the throne only by relying on Qin’s might, yet we later reneged on our promise to cede territory. When Jin suffered famine, Qin promptly supplied us with grain; now that Qin is afflicted, why should we hesitate to return the favor? There is no need for further debate.” In contrast, Guo She argued, “Last year, Heaven granted Jin to Qin, and yet Qin—rather than seizing Jin—sold us grain. Now that Heaven has assigned Qin to Jin, should we dare to defy divine will? We must attack Qin!” Duke Hui accordingly embraced Guo She’s counsel, refused to supply Qin with grain, and instead ordered an expedition against Qin. Enraged, Qin likewise mobilized its forces to strike Jin.
In the spring of the sixth year (645 BCE), Duke Miao of Qin led his army in an assault on Jin. Confronted with the incursion, Duke Hui asked Qing Zheng, “Now that the Qin army has penetrated deep into our lands, what shall we do?” Qing Zheng replied, “Recall that when Qin escorted you home, you reneged on the agreement by withholding the promised territory; and when Jin was stricken by famine, Qin hurried to send aid. Yet now, as Qin suffers famine, Jin not only withholds assistance but even seeks to exploit the opportunity to attack them. Is it not only natural that Qin’s forces have now advanced into our domain?” To divine their fortunes, Jin consulted oracles regarding both the charioteers and the guards—both omens favoring Qing Zheng. Duke Hui, however, declared, “Qing Zheng is too headstrong.” Consequently, he replaced him with Boyang as charioteer, entrusting only his servants with guard duties as they marched against Qin.
On the Renxu day of the ninth month, Duke Miao of Qin and Duke Hui of Jin met in battle at Hanyuan. Duke Hui’s heavy chariot became mired in the mud and was rendered immobile. As the Qin forces closed in, Duke Hui, in great distress, summoned Qing Zheng to take the reins. With a wry smile, Qing Zheng remarked, “If you do not follow the divinations, should we not expect to fail?” And with that, he departed. In a subsequent maneuver, Duke Hui appointed Liang Yaomi as charioteer and entrusted Guo She with guard duty to confront Duke Miao of Qin. The valiant soldiers of Duke Miao routed the Jin army, forcing them into retreat; in the ensuing confusion, Duke Hui attempted to flee but was captured by the Qin forces and taken back to Qin.
There, Qin planned to execute him as a sacrifice to Heaven. At this juncture, the Jin ruler’s elder sister—who had been wedded to Duke Miao—was clad in mourning attire and wept inconsolably. Duke Miao exclaimed, “Capturing the Marquis of Jin ought to be cause for celebration, yet you are in grief! Moreover, I have heard that when Ji Zi beheld the recent enfeoffment of Tang Shu, he proclaimed ‘his descendants shall flourish and prosper’—how then could Jin be doomed to extinction?” Consequently, Duke Miao forged an alliance with the Marquis of Jin in the royal capital and permitted him to return to Jin. The Marquis then dispatched Lü Sheng and his associates to announce to the people of Jin, “Although I may return, I have lost the honor to appear before the state altars; let us choose an auspicious day for the enthronement of Prince Yu.” This pronouncement moved the people of Jin to tears.
Curious, Duke Miao inquired of Lü Sheng, “Are the people of Jin in harmony?” Lü Sheng replied, “They are not. The common folk, fearing that the loss of their ruler will unleash internal strife and even imperil their parents, care little for Prince Yu’s accession—in fact, they exclaim, ‘We shall surely avenge this grievance, even if it means serving the Rong and Di.’ Conversely, the nobles, who cherish their sovereign and are fully aware of his transgressions, await Qin’s command to restore him, promising, ‘We shall undoubtedly repay Qin for its beneficence toward Jin.’ Owing to these divergent sentiments, harmony is absent in Jin.” In light of this, Duke Miao altered Duke Hui’s residence and presented him with the tribute of seven sacrificial offerings. In the eleventh month, Qin sent the Jin ruler back. Upon his return, the Marquis of Jin executed Qing Zheng and undertook a reorganization of state affairs. In deliberations with his ministers, he lamented, “Chong’er, who remains in exile, is widely regarded by the feudal lords as an asset—and they have welcomed him warmly.” The ruler then contemplated dispatching emissaries to the Di peoples to assassinate Chong’er. Catching wind of this plot, Chong’er fled to the state of Qi.
In the eighth year (643 BCE), Duke Hui of Jin sent Crown Prince Yu to Qin as a hostage. Recalling that when Duke Hui had fled to Liang, Lord Liang had married his daughter to him—yielding a son and a daughter—Lord Liang had divined their destinies, predicting that the boy would one day serve as a minister and the girl as a concubine; accordingly, the boy was named Yu, and the girl, Qie.
In the tenth year (641 BCE), Qin annihilated Liang. Lord Liang, enamored with grandiose construction projects and the erection of elaborate fortifications, had burdened his people to the point of exhaustion. The populace, overwhelmed and discontented, repeatedly shrieked in terror, “The Qin army is coming!” Their excessive fear, it seems, precipitated Liang’s downfall at the hands of Qin.
In the thirteenth year (638 BCE), as Duke Hui of Jin fell gravely ill, he found himself with several sons. Crown Prince Yu declared, “My maternal kin hail from Liang—and now Liang has been destroyed by Qin. I am scorned abroad by Qin and have no support at home. With my father confined to his sickbed, I fear the ministers of Jin will disdain me. I beg that one of my brothers be made crown prince instead.” Thus, Crown Prince Yu conspired with his wife to abscond back to Jin. A Qin maiden, seeing his plight, entreated, “You are the crown prince of your nation; to suffer humiliation here is intolerable. Qin has assigned me to serve you in order to soothe your spirit. Please flee; I shall not hinder you, nor dare reveal your departure.” And so, Crown Prince Yu fled back to Jin.
In the fourteenth year (637 BCE), in the month of September, Duke Hui of Jin passed away, and Crown Prince Yu ascended the throne, becoming known henceforth as Duke Huai.
Prince Yu fled, enraging the state of Qin. In response, Qin sought out Prince Chong’er, intending to send him back to Jin. After ascending the throne, Prince Yu, fearing Qin’s retribution, decreed that all those who had fled Jin with Chong’er must return by a set deadline—failure to comply would result in the execution of their entire families. At the time, Hu Tu’s sons, Mao and Yan, were in Qin with Chong’er, yet Hu Tu adamantly refused to call them back. This angered Prince Huai, who had Hu Tu imprisoned.
Hu Tu argued, “My sons have served Chong’er for many years. If I summon them now, it would mean forcing them to betray their rightful lord. How could I teach them such dishonor?” His defiance led to his execution. Meanwhile, Duke Mu of Qin prepared to send an army to escort Chong’er back to Jin. He first sent envoys to contact the factions of Luan Zhi and Xi Gu, ensuring internal support. At Gaoliang, they assassinated Prince Huai and reinstated Chong’er as ruler—thus, he became Duke Wen of Jin.
Duke Wen of Jin, Chong’er, was the son of Duke Xian. From a young age, he enjoyed the company of scholars and virtuous men. By the age of seventeen, he had five distinguished companions: Zhao Shuai; Hu Yan Jiu Fan, his maternal uncle; Jia Tuo; Xian Zhen; and Wei Wuzi. By the time his father, Duke Xian, ascended the throne, Chong’er had already reached adulthood.
In the thirteenth year of Duke Xian’s reign (664 BCE), due to the influence of Consort Li Ji, Chong’er was stationed in the city of Pu to guard against Qin. In the twenty-first year (656 BCE), Duke Xian ordered the execution of Crown Prince Shen Sheng, following slanderous accusations from Li Ji. Fearing for his own life, Chong’er fled without seeking an audience with his father and took refuge in Pu.
By the twenty-second year (655 BCE), Duke Xian sent the eunuch Lü Di to assassinate Chong’er. He managed to escape over a wall while being pursued, though Lü Di severed his sleeve in the attempt. Chong’er then fled to the Di state, his mother’s homeland. At the time, he was forty-three years old.
His five close companions, along with dozens of other followers, accompanied him into exile. The Di people later waged war against the state of Jiu Ru and captured two women. The elder was given to Chong’er, and she bore him two sons, Bo Tiao and Shu Liu. The younger was married to Zhao Shuai, and they had a son, Dun. Chong’er lived in Di for five years before Duke Xian passed away.
Following Duke Xian’s death, Li Ke assassinated Xi Qi and Prince Dao, hoping to bring Chong’er back and install him as ruler. However, fearing for his life, Chong’er refused to return. Instead, Jin installed his younger half-brother, Yiwu, as Duke Hui.
By the seventh year of Duke Hui’s reign (644 BCE), he, too, grew wary of Chong’er and sent Lü Di with a band of warriors to assassinate him. Forewarned, Chong’er consulted with Zhao Shuai and his companions, saying, “I originally fled to Di not because it could support me, but because it was the closest safe haven. Now that I have lingered here for so long, it is time to seek refuge in a great state. Duke Huan of Qi values virtue, aspires to hegemony, and is benevolent to the feudal lords. I have heard that Guan Zhong and Xi Peng have passed away, and Qi now seeks worthy men. Why not journey there?”
Thus, Chong’er set out for Qi. Before departing, he told his wife, “If I do not return within twenty-five years, you may remarry.” She smiled and replied, “By then, the cypress trees on my grave will have grown tall. Even so, I will wait for you.” Chong’er ultimately remained in Di for twelve years before leaving.
Upon reaching Wei, Duke Wen of Wei treated him with little courtesy. Disheartened, Chong’er continued his journey. Passing through Wulu, he grew hungry and asked the villagers for food. In response, they presented him with a vessel filled with earth. Feeling insulted, he scowled, but Zhao Shuai explained, “Earth symbolizes dominion over land. You should accept it with gratitude.”
When Chong’er arrived in Qi, Duke Huan welcomed him generously, even marrying a noblewoman from his own clan to him and bestowing twenty chariots with four horses each. Satisfied, Chong’er settled in Qi and lived comfortably.
He stayed for two years before Duke Huan passed away. Amid the ensuing turmoil caused by an uprising led by Shudiao and his faction, Duke Xiao of Qi ascended the throne. The kingdom soon faced invasions from neighboring states.
Chong’er resided in Qi for a total of five years, deeply enamored with his Qi-born wife, showing no intention of leaving. Concerned, Zhao Shuai and Jiu Fan discussed their predicament under a mulberry tree. Unknown to them, a servant girl of Chong’er’s wife overheard their conversation and secretly relayed it. In a startling response, her mistress killed the servant and then urged Chong’er to depart immediately.
Chong’er, however, refused, saying, “A man’s nature is to seek comfort and pleasure. Why should I concern myself with ambition? I will stay in Qi until I die.” His wife sternly rebuked him: “You are a prince of Jin, stranded here out of misfortune. Your followers regard you as their beacon of hope. Yet instead of striving to reclaim your homeland, you indulge in luxury? I am ashamed of you! If you do not seize this moment, when will you?”
Determined, she conspired with Zhao Shuai and the others to intoxicate Chong’er. Once he was thoroughly drunk, they loaded him onto a carriage and spirited him away from Qi. When he finally awoke, realizing the deception, he flew into a rage and seized a halberd, ready to strike down Jiu Fan.
Jiu Fan merely smiled and said, “If my death will ensure your success, it would be my greatest honor.” Chong’er snarled, “If I fail, I shall feast on your flesh!” Jiu Fan laughed, replying, “If you fail, my flesh will be rank and foul—hardly worth eating!” Chong’er, amused by his wit, set aside his anger and pressed forward on his journey.
Passing through the state of Cao, Duke Gong of Cao treated Chong’er with disdain, even attempting to glimpse his “paired ribs”—a supposed mark of an extraordinary man. The minister Xi Fuji protested, “Prince Chong’er is a virtuous and capable man. He is also of our clan. How can you treat him so disrespectfully?” But Duke Gong refused to heed his advice.
In secret, Xi Fuji sent Chong’er food, placing a jade bi underneath it as a symbol of goodwill. Chong’er accepted the food but returned the jade, signaling his appreciation while maintaining his dignity.
Chong’er left the state of Cao and journeyed to Song. At that time, Duke Xiang of Song had just suffered a defeat at the hands of the Chu army and was wounded along the Hong River. Upon hearing of Chong’er’s reputation for wisdom, Duke Xiang, adhering to state protocol, welcomed him. In Song, Sima Gongsun Gu, a friend of Jiufan, remarked, “Song is a minor state, and having just endured a crushing defeat, it is unfit to help you return home; you should seek refuge in a great power.” Consequently, Chong’er and his entourage departed from Song.
Passing through Zheng, they encountered the impolite Duke Wen of Zheng. Zheng’s official, Shu Zhan, advised the ruler: “The young Lord of Jin, Chong’er, is renowned for his virtue; his retinue is composed of the nation’s future pillars, and he even shares our surname. Just as Zheng was founded by King Li and Jin by King Wu, he deserves proper respect.” Yet the Duke of Zheng replied, “Too many exiled princes from various vassal states have passed through our land; how can we afford to honor every one in full ceremonial style?” Shu Zhan then cautioned, “If you do not accord him the proper rites, you might as well execute him to prevent future troubles for our state.” The Duke of Zheng, however, chose not to heed this counsel.
Chong’er next arrived in Chu, where King Cheng of Chu treated him with the formal dignity due to a vassal, an honor Chong’er humbly declined. Zhao Shuai observed, “You have already endured over a decade in exile, and minor states hold you in contempt—let alone a great power. Today, Chu, a mighty state, insists on treating you with utmost generosity; do not decline, for it is as if Heaven itself is orchestrating your revival.” Convinced, Chong’er then met King Cheng in the prescribed vassal manner. King Cheng received him cordially, while Chong’er remained remarkably modest. The king inquired, “Upon your return to your homeland, what gift shall you bestow upon me in gratitude?” Chong’er replied, “I possess no treasures sufficient to repay you—no exotic birds, rare beasts, pearls, jade, or silks could ever compensate your kindness.” Still, King Cheng pressed, “In any event, what can I expect as a token of gratitude?” Chong’er responded, “If circumstances force us into conflict upon the plains or in the marshlands, I implore you, grant me safe passage and retreat your forces by three li.” This incited the ire of Chu’s general, Zi Yu, who exclaimed, “The king has treated the young Lord of Jin too favorably; today, Chong’er’s audacious words demand his execution!” King Cheng retorted, “Though Chong’er’s character is noble, he has suffered hardships for too long, surrounded by a retinue of worthy talents—this is Heaven’s will. How could I possibly order his death? Moreover, how are his words to be interpreted?”
Chong’er resided in Chu for several months. Meanwhile, the Crown Prince of Jin, Yu, had fled from Qin, where resentment against him festered. Upon hearing that Chong’er was sheltering in Chu, Qin resolved to invite him to their state. King Cheng said, “Chu lies too distant; one must traverse several nations to reach Jin. The border between Qin and Jin is overseen by a sagacious sovereign—please, proceed with due care!” King Cheng then showered Chong’er with numerous gifts.
Upon reaching Qin, Duke Miao of Qin married Chong’er to five women of the same clan, including the wife of the original Prince Yu. Initially, Chong’er was reluctant to accept Prince Yu’s wife, but Sikong Jizi admonished, “The nation is on the brink of war, not to mention his wife! Accepting her was intended to forge marital ties with Qin to aid your return to Jin; yet you are entangled in trivial ceremonies, forsaking greater honor!” Consequently, Chong’er accepted her. Duke Miao of Qin rejoiced and personally celebrated with Chong’er in a banquet. Zhao Shuai recited a poem titled “Millet Shoots.” Duke Miao remarked, “I understand your earnest desire to return to Jin swiftly.” As Zhao Shuai and Chong’er took their leave from the banquet, they bowed in gratitude once more, saying, “We, your isolated and unsupported subjects, depend on you—as the parched fields await the timely rains.” At that time, it was the autumn of the fourteenth year of Duke Hui of Jin (637 BC). In September, Duke Hui passed away and Prince Yu ascended the throne. In November, Jin held Duke Hui’s funeral, and in December, ministers such as Luan Zhi and Xi Gu, having learned of Chong’er’s presence in Qin, secretly urged him and Zhao Shuai to return to Jin, their ranks swelling with potential internal allies. Thus, Duke Miao of Qin dispatched an army to escort Chong’er back to Jin.
Upon hearing of the Qin army’s approach, the Jin ruler also mobilized his forces in opposition. Yet the populace was secretly aware of Prince Chong’er’s impending return, except for a few of Duke Hui’s old ministers, like Lü Ying and Xi Rui, who opposed his accession. After enduring nineteen years in exile, Chong’er finally returned to Jin at the age of sixty-two, and the people of Jin largely rallied to his side.
In the spring of the first year of Duke Wen’s reign (636 BC), Qin escorted Chong’er to the banks of the Yellow River. Jiufan said, “I have accompanied you across the realm and committed countless errors. I am well aware of my faults—how much more you have yours? I beg to take my leave at this moment.” Chong’er replied, “When I return to Jin, should anyone prove disloyal to you, let the River God bear witness!” With that, Chong’er cast a precious jade into the Yellow River and solemnly swore an oath with Zifan. At that moment, Jie Zitui, also a retainer, laughed from aboard the boat, remarking, “Heaven indeed favors your rise, yet Zifan claims undue credit and now demands rewards from the sovereign—what disgrace! I cannot count myself among his followers.” After these words, Jie Zitui concealed himself and quietly crossed the river. The Qin forces then besieged Linghu while the Jin army encamped at Luliu. On the day marked by the earthly branch Xin Chou (February), Jiufan allied with the Qin-Jin minister at Xun. On the day of Ren Yin, Chong’er joined the Jin army; on the day of Bing Wu, he reached Quwo; and on the day of Ding Wei, he paid homage at Wugong, ascending the throne as the ruler of Jin—thus becoming Duke Wen. The ministers then gathered at Quwo, while Huai Gong Yu fled to Gaoliang. Finally, on the day of Wu Shen, Chong’er sent his men to eliminate Huai Gong.
Former high-ranking ministers of Duke Wen, such as Lü Sheng and Xi Rui, originally refused to submit to him. Fearing execution, they conspired with their partisan allies to set fire to the palace where Duke Wen resided and to assassinate him. Duke Wen remained completely oblivious to their plot. Earlier, the eunuch Lǚ Di—who had himself once plotted to kill Duke Wen—had learned of this conspiracy. Seeking to atone for his past misdeeds, he requested an audience with Duke Wen to reveal the scheme. Duke Wen declined to see him and instead sent envoys to admonish him, saying:
“In the matter of Pucheng, you have cut the very sleeve of my garment. Later, when I accompanied Lord Di on a hunt, you tracked and pursued me on behalf of Lord Hui. Lord Hui had agreed to reach us within three days, yet you arrived in a single day—how exceedingly swift! Reflect carefully upon this.”
The eunuch replied, “I am a man who has suffered castration in the palace; I dare not serve the sovereign with a double heart, nor betray my master, and thus I have incurred your displeasure. Now that you have returned to your country, have events like those in Pu and Zhai truly ceased to exist? Moreover, consider that when Guan Zhong struck the belt-hook of Duke Huan of Qi, it was still through Guan Zhong’s counsel that Huan ascended to supremacy. Today, I, a sinful man, wish to inform you of a matter of great import; yet you would not see me, and calamity is poised to befall you once again.”
Thus, Duke Wen granted him an audience, and the eunuch recounted, in every detail, the conspiracy devised by Lü Sheng, Xi Rui, and their cohorts. Duke Wen desired to summon Lü and Xi, but their number was vast. Concerned that, having just returned to his homeland, he might be betrayed by his own people, Duke Wen concealed his identity and, in disguise, traveled to the royal city to meet with Lord Qin Miao, his actions unbeknownst to his countrymen.
On the day designated as Ji Chou in the third lunar month, Lü, Xi, and their fellow conspirators indeed rebelled. They set ablaze the palace in which Duke Wen resided, yet they could not locate him. As Duke Wen’s guards engaged them in combat, Lü, Xi, and their men attempted to flee with their forces. Lord Qin Miao, however, lured them to the banks of the Yellow River and slew them there. Thus, tranquility was restored in the State of Jin, and Duke Wen was able to return. In the summer, Duke Wen repatriated his consort from the State of Qin; at long last, the woman given to him by Qin was recognized as his lady. Additionally, Qin bestowed upon him three thousand guards to safeguard against further internal strife in Jin.
Duke Wen administered the state with reform and enlightened governance. He lavished benevolence upon the common people and bestowed rewards upon his followers, refugees, and meritorious officials—granting cities to those with great achievements and noble titles to those with lesser deeds. Yet before all the honors could be fully dispensed, news arrived that King Xiang of Zhou, fleeing to the State of Zheng due to his brother, Prince Dai, instigating a rebellion, had urgently entreated for aid from Jin. Just as Jin had only recently regained stability, the state contemplated dispatching an army but was equally anxious about inciting domestic turmoil. Thus, while Duke Wen continued bestowing rewards to his loyal refugees, even the reclusive Jie Zitui had not yet received his due salary. Jie Zitui himself, who did not covet any reward, remarked:
“Duke Xian has nine sons, and only the sovereign remains alive. Lords Hui and Huai lack trusted intimates, and both at home and abroad are abhorred; Heaven has not yet decreed the ruin of Jin—surely there must remain a ruler to oversee the state’s rites. Who but the sovereign can undertake such sacred ceremonies? Indeed, Heaven is aiding your ascendance, yet if two or three individuals presume it to be their own merit, would that not be absurd? To purloin another’s wealth and then claim to be a thief—how much more preposterous is it for one to usurp the divine credit as one’s own? I can no longer abide the duplicity of subordinates who cover up their transgressions and a ruler who rewards the crafty, a mutual deceit among all tiers.”
Jie Zitui’s mother then implored, “Why do you not also seek a reward? Who could then bear the blame in death?” To which Jie Zitui responded, “I resent those individuals; to emulate their conduct would only compound my guilt. Moreover, having voiced my grievances, I shall not partake of any stipend.” His mother then suggested, “Perhaps you might let Duke Wen know of your situation?” Jie Zitui replied, “Adornments are but superficial decorations worn by each person; if one wishes to conceal oneself, why employ such adornments? To wear them is to display one’s self.” His mother retorted, “Could one truly act in accordance with your words? In that case, let us both withdraw from the world.” And so, mother and son disappeared from public view until their deaths.
Moved by compassion, some of Duke Wen’s attendants who had fled with him hung a placard at the palace gate, bearing the inscription:
“Just as a dragon aspires to the heavens aided by five snakes, and once the dragon has soared into the clouds, four snakes retreat to their respective abodes, leaving but one to lament alone, never to find its proper place.”
When Duke Wen stepped out of the palace and read these words, he lamented, “This speaks of Jie Zitui. Here I was, burdened by concerns for the royal family, and I had not yet contemplated his contributions.” Consequently, Duke Wen dispatched men to summon Jie Zitui, but he had already vanished. Upon inquiring after his whereabouts, it was said that he had taken refuge on Mount Mianshang. Duke Wen then granted Jie Zitui the entire mountain as his fief, naming it Jietui’s Field, and thereafter it was known as Mount Jie, “so as to record my transgressions and extol the worthy.”
An inept attendant who had fled with Duke Wen, Hu Shu, lamented, “In all three instances of rewarding the meritorious, my turn has not yet come. Pray, what fault have I committed?” Duke Wen responded, “Those who instruct me with benevolence and righteousness, who admonish me with moral rectitude and kindness, deserve the highest rewards. Those who assist me with their deeds, thereby ensuring my success, merit the second tier of honors. Those who bear the peril of armed conflict, establishing feats on horseback and with bow and arrow, warrant further recognition. And even those who labor merely to serve me, without atoning for my errors, are entitled to yet another level of reward. Once these three tiers of honors have been exhausted, then it shall be your turn.” Upon hearing Duke Wen’s words, the people of Jin rejoiced in unison.
In the spring of the second year (635 BCE), the armies of Qin were encamped along the banks of the Yellow River, poised to escort the Zhou king back to the capital. Zhao Shuai declared, “If one aspires to hegemony, it is far more advantageous to escort and honor the Zhou king. Since Zhou and Jin share the same ancestral name, if Jin does not take the initiative to bring the king home and falls behind Qin, it will forfeit its authority to command the realm. Today, venerating the Zhou king is the very capital for Jin’s rise.” On the Jiachen day of March, Jin dispatched forces to Yangfan, encircled Wen, and safely escorted King Xiang of Zhou to the Zhou capital. In April, Jin executed King Xiang’s brother, Prince Dai, and in gratitude, King Xiang conferred upon Jin the territories of Henei and Yangfan.
In the fourth year (633 BCE), King Cheng of Chu, together with several feudal lords, besieged the State of Song, prompting Song’s official Gongsun Gu to urgently seek assistance from Jin. Xian Zhen proclaimed, “Today is the day to repay our benefactors and determine the true hegemon.” Hu Yan observed, “Chu has just seized the State of Cao and, for the first time, intermarried with Wei; if Chu were to attack Cao and Wei, it would undoubtedly dispatch aid, thereby liberating Song.” Consequently, Jin organized three armies: Zhao Shuai recommended Xi Gu to command the central force, with Xi Zhen as his aide; Hu Yan was entrusted with the upper army, assisted by Hu Mao, while Zhao Shuai was honored with the rank of minister; Luan Zhi led the lower army, supported by Xian Zhen; and Xun Linfu drove the chariots, with Wei Chou assigned as his escort. These three forces set forth to campaign against Cao and Wei, and in the twelfth lunar month of winter, the Jin troops first captured the lands east of the Taihang Mountains, granting the former fief to Zhao Shuai.
In the spring of the fifth year (632 BCE), Duke Wen of Jin contemplated an expedition against Cao and sought passage through Wei, only to be rebuffed by its people. Forced to alter his course, the Jin army detoured south across the Yellow River to subdue both Cao and Wei. In the first month, they captured Wulu; in the second, the Marquis of Jin and the Marquis of Qi forged an alliance at Lianyu. When the Marquis of Wei requested an alliance with Jin, the Jin people declined. Seeking instead an alliance with Chu, the Marquis of Wei was met with opposition from his own subjects—and ultimately, he was deposed for his attempts to ingratiate himself with Jin. Residing at Xiangniu, his son, Prince Mai, held the defense of Wei, but despite Chu’s intervention on Wei’s behalf, victory eluded them. Meanwhile, the Marquis of Jin besieged Cao. On the Bingwu day of the third month, Jin’s forces penetrated the capital of Cao and meticulously listed the crimes of Lord Cao—accusing him of ignoring the counsel of Li Fugu while ostentatiously parading three hundred beautiful women in a splendid chariot. Duke Wen then decreed that the troops must refrain from entering the households of Li Fugu’s kin as an expression of gratitude for his service. As Chu surrounded Song and Song again sought Jin’s aid, Duke Wen found himself in a quandary: to rescue Song, he would have to attack Chu—a state that had once been beneficent to him—yet to abandon Song would be equally unthinkable given its past favors to Jin. Xian Zhen counseled, “Seize Lord Cao and allocate the lands of Cao and Wei to Song; Chu will surely be thrown into disarray and compelled to relinquish Song.” In light of this advice, Duke Wen accepted the plan, and King Cheng of Chu indeed led his forces away from Song.
Chu’s esteemed general, Zi Yu, lamented, “King Cheng has been exceedingly magnanimous to Jin; yet today, Duke Wen—aware of Chu’s intimate ties with Cao and Wei—deliberately assaults them, an act that insults a sovereign.” King Cheng retorted, “The Marquis of Jin, exiled and in flight for nineteen long years, has at last returned to his homeland. Having weathered innumerable hardships, he is uniquely qualified to govern his people. Heaven has cleared the way for him—he is unstoppable.” Undeterred, Zi Yu petitioned for reinforcements, asserting, “I do not dare to secure immortal renown; I only seek to silence these slanderous voices.” Enraged, the Chu king granted him but a scant force. Consequently, Zi Yu dispatched Wan Chun to Jin with a message: “Request that the Marquis of Wei’s position be restored and that the State of Cao be preserved; in return, I renounce any claim on Song.” Jiu Fan objected, exclaiming, “Zi Yu, such insolence! While my sovereign accepts a single share, these ministers demand double—this is unacceptable.” Xian Zhen then reasoned, “True propriety lies in securing the hearts of the people. While Chu’s words have the power to stabilize three states, yours would bring about their ruin, rendering us the true ungrateful party. To refuse Chu is to forsake Song. Rather, let us secretly agree to restore Cao and Wei, thereby enticing Chu; by detaining Wan Chun to provoke them, we may later devise a stratagem in accordance with the tide of battle.” Accordingly, the Marquis of Jin imprisoned Wan Chun in Wei and, in private, consented to the restoration of Cao and Wei. Envoys from both states were dispatched to announce the severance of ties with Chu. Incensed by this turn of events, the Chu general De Chen attacked the Jin forces, forcing them to retreat. When an officer inquired, “Why are we falling back?” Duke Wen replied, “When we were in Chu, an accord was established stipulating that in battle one must yield by retreating three li—how can we now renege on our word?” Although the Chu army wished to withdraw, De Chen refused to allow it. On the Wuchen day of April, the lords of Song, generals of Qi and Qin, and the Marquis of Jin took up positions at Chengpu. On the Jisi day, they engaged the Chu army; the Chu forces were defeated, and De Chen, along with his remnant troops, fled in disarray. On the Jiawu day, the Jin army returned to Hengyong, whereupon they consecrated the ground and constructed a royal palace for King Xiang of Zhou.
Earlier, when Zheng had once come to Chu’s aid, the tide had turned—and now, in Chu’s defeat, the State of Zheng grew fearful and sent envoys to request an alliance with the Marquis of Jin. Consequently, the Marquis of Jin allied himself with Zheng Bo.
On the Dingwei day of May, Duke Wen of Jin presented the captured Chu soldiers to the Zhou king—a tribute consisting of one hundred armored four-horse chariots and over a thousand infantrymen. The Son of the King, Prince Zihu, was commissioned to proclaim the Marquis of Jin as the hegemon. In his honor, the sovereign bestowed upon him a splendid chariot ornamented in gold, a set of red bows with one hundred red arrows, ten sets of black bows with a thousand black arrows, a vessel of fragrant wine, a jade ladle, and three hundred gallant warriors. Though the Marquis of Jin declined these lavish gifts on several occasions, he ultimately accepted them with due ceremony. The Zhou king then composed the “Mandate of Duke Wen of Jin,” declaring:
“You have united the feudal lords through the virtue of righteousness, thereby extolling the illustrious achievements of King Wen and King Wu. Their diligent cultivation of noble character has moved Heaven, and their influence has spread among the people. Consequently, Heaven has entrusted the imperial mandate to them, bestowing upon their descendants an unending legacy. My elders have cared for me, enabling me to inherit the legacy of my forebears and to preserve the throne for all time.”
Thus, Duke Wen of Jin assumed hegemony, and on the Guihai day, Prince Zihu, within the royal palace, forged an alliance with the feudal lords.
The State of Jin set fire to the Chu army’s encampment, and the raging flames burned for days without ceasing. Duke Wen of Jin sighed. His ministers asked, “We have defeated Chu, yet you seem troubled. Why?” Duke Wen replied, “I have heard that only a sage remains unshaken after victory. That is why I am afraid. Moreover, Ziyu is still alive—how can I allow myself to rejoice?”
Ziyu, having suffered a crushing defeat, returned to Chu in disgrace. King Cheng of Chu, enraged that Ziyu had disregarded his orders and engaged Jin in battle against his command, reprimanded him severely. Overwhelmed by guilt and humiliation, Ziyu took his own life. Upon hearing this, Duke Wen remarked, “I strike at Chu from without, while Chu eliminates its own generals from within—our efforts are in perfect accord.” At last, he allowed himself a smile.
In the sixth month, Jin reinstated the Marquis of Wey. On the day of Renwu, Duke Wen crossed the Yellow River and headed northward, returning home. He then conferred rewards based on merit, with Hu Yan being credited as the foremost contributor. Some objected, saying, “The victory at Chengpu was the result of Xian Zhen’s strategy.” Duke Wen replied, “It was Hu Yan who urged me to keep my word, while Xian Zhen argued that victory in battle was the priority. I followed Xian Zhen’s advice and won the battle, but his reasoning only served immediate gain. Hu Yan, on the other hand, spoke of an achievement that would endure for generations. How could short-term benefits outweigh the foundation of a lasting legacy? That is why Hu Yan deserves the highest merit.”
In winter, Duke Wen convened a gathering of vassal lords at Wen, intending to lead them in paying homage to the King of Zhou. However, he feared that his authority was insufficient and that some lords might betray him. Thus, he sent word to King Xiang of Zhou, inviting him to a hunting excursion at Heyang. On the day of Renshen, Duke Wen led the assembled lords to Jiantu, where they paid respects to King Xiang.
Confucius, upon reading the historical records of Duke Wen, remarked, “No vassal lord has the authority to summon the Son of Heaven. The phrase ‘The King of Zhou was hunting in Heyang’ is but an attempt by the Spring and Autumn Annals to obscure the truth.”
On the day of Dingchou, the allied lords besieged the State of Xu. Among the officials of Cao, one advised Duke Wen, saying, “Duke Huan of Qi united the vassal states to preserve those of different surnames. Yet today, Your Grace gathers the lords only to destroy a state of the same lineage. The House of Cao descends from Uncle Zhenduo, while Jin traces its ancestry to Uncle Tang. If you assemble the lords only to annihilate a kindred state, it violates the rites.” Duke Wen, pleased with this reasoning, reinstated the Marquis of Cao.
Thus, the State of Jin formally established the Three Armies System: Xun Linfu commanded the Central Army, Xian Gu led the Right Army, and Xian Mie oversaw the Left Army.
In the seventh year of his reign (630 BCE), Duke Wen of Jin and Duke Mu of Qin jointly laid siege to Zheng. This was in response to Zheng’s past disrespect toward Duke Wen during his exile and its support for Chu in the Battle of Chengpu. The Jin forces besieged Zheng, demanding the surrender of Shu Zhan. Upon hearing this, Shu Zhan took his own life. The people of Zheng brought his body before the Jin army, but Duke Wen declared, “I will be satisfied with nothing less than the capture of the ruler of Zheng.” Fearing their imminent destruction, Zheng secretly dispatched envoys to Qin, saying, “If Zheng falls, Jin will grow stronger while Qin gains nothing. Why not abandon the siege and forge an alliance with us instead?” Duke Mu of Qin agreed and withdrew his troops, prompting Jin to follow suit.
In the ninth year (628 BCE), Duke Wen passed away, and his son, Duke Xiang, ascended the throne. That same year, the ruler of Zheng also died.
In Zheng, a traitor sought to betray the state to Qin. Seizing the opportunity, Duke Mu of Qin led his forces on a covert mission to invade Zheng. In the twelfth month, the Qin army passed through the outskirts of Jin’s capital.
In the spring of Duke Xiang’s first year (627 BCE), the Qin forces reached the vicinity of Zhou and behaved discourteously, prompting Wangsun Man to mock them. The Qin army advanced to Hua, where they encountered Xian Gao, a wealthy merchant from Zheng, who was on his way to trade in the Zhou capital. Sensing the impending danger, Xian Gao swiftly offered the Qin army twelve oxen as a gesture of goodwill. Alarmed, the Qin forces suspected that their approach had been discovered, and in haste, they abandoned their campaign, capturing Hua instead before retreating.
Xian Zhen of Jin remarked, “Duke Mu of Qin disregarded Jian Shu’s counsel and defied the will of the people. This makes Qin a viable target for attack.” Luan Zhi opposed, saying, “We have yet to repay Qin for its past kindness to our late ruler. Striking now would be unjust.” Xian Zhen countered, “Qin has taken advantage of our new ruler, who is still mourning his father, and has invaded a state of our own kin. What debt of gratitude remains to be honored?”
Thus, Jin launched an offensive against Qin. Duke Xiang, still clad in mourning attire, personally led the army. In the fourth month, Jin clashed with Qin at Yao and won a decisive victory, capturing three Qin generals—Meng Mingshi, Xi Qishu, and Bai Yibing—before returning triumphantly to Jin. Duke Xiang, still in mourning dress, held a solemn burial for his late father, Duke Wen.
Duke Wen’s consort, a woman of Qin, urged Duke Xiang, “Qin wishes to retrieve the three captured generals, but only to execute them. You should send them back.” Duke Xiang agreed and released them.
Upon hearing this, Xian Zhen warned, “This decision will bring disaster.” He immediately set out to pursue the three captives, but by the time he reached the banks of the Yellow River, they had already boarded a boat. Seeing Xian Zhen from a distance, they bowed in gratitude before vanishing into the horizon, never to return.
Three years later, the state of Qin indeed dispatched Meng Ming to launch an expedition against Jin—avenging the earlier defeat at Yao. After seizing the Wang territory of Jin, the Qin forces withdrew. In the fourth year (624 BC), Qin’s Marquis Miao led a vast army against Jin. They crossed the Yellow River, captured the royal palace, and even constructed a tomb on Yao Mountain to honor the fallen warriors before departing. Overwhelmed by panic, Jin dared not venture out and confined itself within its fortified walls. In the fifth year (623 BC), Jin counterattacked Qin, capturing Xincheng to redress its loss at Wang.
In the sixth year (622 BC), Zhao Shuai Chengzi, Luan Zhenzi, Jiu Ji, Zifang, and Huo Bo all perished, and Zhao Dun assumed the reins of government in Zhao’s stead.
In the seventh year (621 BC), in August, Duke Xiang passed away while the crown prince, Yi Gao, was still but a child. Having endured repeated calamities, the people of Jin favored the crowning of a more mature ruler. Zhao Dun remarked, “We should enthrone Xiang’s brother, Yong. Yong is gentle and virtuous, of mature age, and our late sovereign held him in high regard. Besides, he maintains close ties with Qin—a state that has long been a friendly neighbor. By installing a virtuous man, the state shall remain stable; by honoring an elder, governance will be smooth; by venerating one whom our late sovereign cherished, filial piety is preserved; and by allying with an old friend, stability is assured.” Jia Ji countered, “Yong pales when compared to his younger brother Le. With Chen Ying cherished by both sovereigns, enshrining her son would certainly reassure the people.” Zhao Dun replied, “Chen Ying is of humble status—ranked even below nine concubines—and her son can hardly command any prestige. Moreover, her favor with both rulers reeks of licentiousness. As for Le, being the offspring of our late sovereign, he must not seek refuge in a minor state while neglecting a major one; that would only isolate him. A debauched mother begets an isolated son devoid of dignity; and Chen, being both small and remote from Jin, is utterly unfit for rulership.” Consequently, Jin sent Shi Gong to Qin to receive Prince Yong, while Jia Ji dispatched envoys to Chen to summon Prince Le back. Zhao Dun then deposed Jia Ji—for he had slain Yang Chu’s father. In October, Jin interred Duke Xiang, and by November, Jia Ji had fled to Zhai. In that very year, Qin’s Marquis Miao also passed away.
In the first year of Duke Ling (620 BC), in April, Duke Kang of Qin observed, “When Duke Wen previously returned to Jin without proper guards, it invited the misfortunes wrought by Lü and Xi.” Consequently, Qin furnished Prince Yong with a multitude of guards. The crown prince’s mother, Miao Ying, incessantly cradled the young heir at court, weeping and lamenting, “What transgression did our late sovereign commit? And what fault does his successor bear? You have abandoned your legitimate son in favor of an outsider—what position do you intend for him?” Leaving the court in distress, she rushed with the crown prince to Zhao Dun’s residence, kowtowing and exclaiming, “Our late sovereign entrusted this child to you, once declaring, ‘If this child proves capable, he is a gift from you; if not, you shall incur my wrath.’ Now that he is gone, those words still echo, yet you deposed him—this is unacceptable!” Fearing her entreaties and the threat of coercion, Zhao Dun and his ministers abandoned the welcoming of Yong and instead enthroned Crown Prince Yi Gao, marking the commencement of Duke Ling’s reign. Simultaneously, troops were dispatched to intercept the Qin forces escorting Prince Yong. Zhao Dun, serving as general, led his army against Qin and scored a victory at Linghu, causing senior ministers Xianmie and Suihui to flee to Qin. That autumn, the sovereigns of Qi, Song, Wei, Zheng, Cao, and Xu visited Zhao Dun and forged an alliance with him—a response to Duke Ling’s recent accession.
In the fourth year (617 BC), Jin attacked Qin, seizing Shaoliang, while Qin likewise captured Yao from Jin. In the sixth year (615 BC), Duke Kang of Qin waged war against Jin and took Jima. Enraged, the Marquis of Jin dispatched Zhao Dun, Zhao Chuan, and Xi Que to counterattack Qin. A grand battle erupted at Hequ, where Zhao Chuan distinguished himself. In the seventh year (614 BC), Jin’s six ministers, apprehensive that Suihui in Qin might incite internal strife, persuaded Wei Shouyu to oppose Jin’s surrender to Qin. In response, Qin sent Suihui to Wei, whereupon he was apprehended and returned to Jin.
In the eighth year (613 BC), King Qing of Zhou passed away. Amid fierce power struggles among the high officials, no formal edict of mourning was issued. Seizing the moment, Jin dispatched Zhao Dun, commanding eight hundred chariots, to quell the disturbances within the Zhou realm and install King Kuang. That same year marked the accession of King Zhuang of Chu. In the tenth year (609 BC), the people of Qi assassinated their sovereign, Duke Yi.
In the fourteenth year (607 BC), Duke Ling reached maturity and indulged in extravagant excess, extorting the people’s very essence to adorn the palace walls with vivid murals. From an elevated platform, he would hurl projectiles at passersby, deriving a macabre amusement from their desperate evasions. When a royal chef failed to properly tenderize a bear’s paw, Duke Ling became incensed, killing the chef outright and ordering that his corpse be carried by women and paraded before the court. Zhao Dun and Suihui repeatedly sought to counsel him, but Duke Ling remained impervious; even when they observed the severed hand of the fallen chef, their appeals fell on deaf ears. At one point, Suihui was the first to plead, yet the sovereign remained unmoved. Fearing their influence, Duke Ling even dispatched Chu Ni to assassinate Zhao Dun. However, upon noticing that the inner chamber door of Zhao Dun’s quarters was ajar and observing the humble simplicity of his residence, Chu Ni withdrew and lamented, “To slay a loyal minister and defy the sovereign’s command is an equally grievous sin.” With that sorrowful remark, he struck his head against a tree and met his demise.
In former times, Zhao Dun would often go hunting on Shou Mountain. On one such excursion, he encountered a famished man sheltering beneath a mulberry tree. This man was known as Shi Mi Ming. Moved by pity, Zhao Dun offered him some food, yet the man ate only half of it. When questioned about his restraint, Shi Mi Ming replied, “I have been in service for three years, and I do not know if my dear mother still lives. I wish to leave the remaining half for her.” Deeply impressed by his filial piety, Zhao Dun provided him with additional provisions of rice and meat. Not long after, Shi Mi Ming became the personal chef for the Duke of Jin—a fact unknown to Zhao Dun.
In September, Duke Ling of Jin hosted a banquet for Zhao Dun while secretly positioning soldiers to ambush and kill him. Upon learning of the plot, and fearing that an intoxicated Zhao Dun might be unable to extricate himself, Shi Mi Ming boldly intervened. He advised Zhao Dun, “Your Majesty’s gracious host offers you wine; merely three cups will suffice.” His subtle counsel was meant to hasten Zhao Dun’s departure and spare him from impending peril. Once Zhao Dun had left, the Duke’s soldiers—still gathering—released a vicious dog named Ao. Without any weapon but his bare hands, Shi Mi Ming slew the dog in Zhao Dun’s stead. Zhao Dun later mused, “To forsake a man and employ a dog—what use is even the fiercest beast?” Little did he know that this act was a covert measure to protect him. Soon thereafter, as Duke Ling directed his concealed troops to pursue Zhao Dun, Shi Mi Ming countered the assailants with such resolve that they were unable to press forward, allowing Zhao Dun to escape unscathed. When Zhao Dun inquired about his savior’s identity, Shi Mi Ming modestly replied, “I am the very starving man you saw beneath the mulberry tree.” When pressed for his name, he remained silent and subsequently vanished into obscurity.
Thus, Zhao Dun managed to elude capture, though he had not yet crossed beyond the borders of Jin. On the day designated Yichou, his younger brother General Zhao Chuan, waiting in a peach orchard, slew Duke Ling and brought Zhao Dun back to safety. Zhao Dun had long been esteemed and beloved by the people, while the young and extravagant Duke Ling had failed to win the hearts of the populace—rendering his removal all the more facile. Zhao Dun soon resumed his former station. The state historian Dong Hu recorded these events with unvarnished candor: “Zhao Dun has slain his own sovereign.” Zhao Dun retorted, “It was Zhao Chuan who killed the ruler; I am blameless.” To which Dong Hu responded, “You, a foremost minister, fled but never left the borders of Jin, and upon your return, you spared the insurgents. If not you, then who?” Later, upon hearing this account, Confucius remarked, “Dong Hu is an exemplary chronicler of antiquity, steadfast in his truthful record. And Xuan Zi, a distinguished minister, accepted a sullied reputation rather than betray the law. Alas, had Zhao Dun fled beyond the state’s borders, he would have evaded culpability.”
Subsequently, Zhao Dun ordered Zhao Chuan to bring Hei Tun—the younger brother of Duke Xiang—from Zhou Jing—and install him as the new ruler, known henceforth as Duke Cheng. Duke Cheng was the younger son of Duke Wen, and his mother was of the Zhou royal lineage. On a day marked as Ren-Shen, Duke Cheng proceeded to the Wu Palace to pay homage to his ancestors.
In the first year of his reign (606 BC), Duke Cheng conferred upon the Zhao clan the rank of high officials. Meanwhile, Jin declared war upon Zheng for its betrayal. In the third year (604 BC), as Zheng Bo had just ascended the throne, the state of Zheng—although having aligned itself with Jin—renounced its former allegiance to Chu. Incensed, the King of Chu launched an attack on Zheng, prompting Jin to dispatch aid.
In the sixth year (601 BC), Jin turned its attention to Qin, attacking it and capturing the Qin general known as Chi. Then, in the seventh year (600 BC), Duke Cheng and King Zhuang of Chu contended for regional hegemony, meeting with various feudal lords at Huyi. The state of Chen, wary of Chu, chose to abstain from the gathering. In response, Jin sent Sui Hui to campaign against Chen—an expedition that simultaneously served to rescue Zheng and engage Chu in battle, resulting in a decisive defeat for the Chu forces. That very year, Duke Cheng passed away, and his son Duke Jing ascended the throne.
In the spring of Duke Jing’s first year (599 BC), a minister from Chen named Xia Zhengshu murdered his own sovereign, Duke Ling. In the following year (598 BC), King Zhuang of Chu retaliated by attacking Chen and executing Zhengshu.
The subsequent year (597 BC) saw King Zhuang of Chu besiege Zheng, which then sought assistance from Jin. In response, Jin dispatched Xun Linfu to command the central army, Sui Hui to lead the vanguard, and Zhao Shuo to helm the rearguard, all supported by the generals Xi Ke, Luan Shu, Xian Gu, Han Jue, and Gong Shuo. By June, the Jin forces had reached the banks of the Yellow River. Upon hearing that Chu had subdued Zheng, Zheng Bo discarded his outer garment to expose his arms—a symbolic act of alliance with Chu—and the Chu troops began to withdraw. Xun Linfu wished to recall his forces to Jin, but Xian Gu admonished, “Since we have come to the rescue of Zheng, we must not retreat before our mission is complete; otherwise, the loyalty and morale of our commanders will waver.” Accordingly, the Jin army pressed on and ultimately crossed the Yellow River. The Chu, having consolidated their control over Zheng, planned to celebrate their renown by riding their horses along the riverbank and then depart from Zheng. A fierce battle erupted between the Chu and Jin armies. In a twist of treachery, the state of Zheng—having only recently pledged allegiance to Chu—became so fearful of Chu that it assisted the Chu forces in their assault on Jin. The Jin army suffered a catastrophic defeat, retreating to the river’s edge amid a frenzied scramble for boats, during which many men lost fingers to severed oars. The Chu even managed to capture the illustrious Jin general Zhi Ying. Upon returning to Jin, Xun Linfu lamented, “As a great general, I ought to be executed for our defeat. I beg for the death penalty.” Duke Jing was inclined to accede to this request until Sui Hui interjected, “In days past, when Duke Wen battled Chu at Chengpu, it was only after King Cheng of Chu returned home and executed the great general Zi Yu that Duke Wen rejoiced. Today, with Chu having vanquished our forces and us having slain our own commander, we are only aiding Chu in eliminating its true foes.” These words persuaded Duke Jing to relent.
Year 4 (596 BC):
Xian Gu, having been the first to advise, inadvertently led the Jin army to a crushing defeat on the banks of the Yellow River. Fearing retribution, he fled to the state of Zhai, where he conspired with its rulers to launch an expedition against Jin. Once Jin discovered this treachery, it executed the entire clan of Xian Gu. (Xian Gu was the son of Xian Zhen.)
Year 5 (595 BC):
Jin embarked on a punitive campaign against the state of Zheng for its assistance to Chu. At that time, King Zhuang of Chu was exceedingly formidable, and as a result, the Jin forces were repelled along the banks of the Yellow River.
Year 6 (594 BC):
When Chu attacked Song, the state of Song sought aid from Jin, which was inclined to intervene. However, Bo Zong counseled, “Chu is divinely empowered and cannot be thwarted.” Consequently, Jin dispatched Xie Yang under the pretense of rescuing Song. Captured by agents of Zheng and delivered to Chu, Xie Yang was lavishly rewarded and persuaded to reverse his stance, thus hastening Song’s collapse. Pretending to agree, he ultimately conveyed the words of the Jin sovereign to Song. Although Chu initially resolved to execute him, prudent counsel led to his release.
Year 7 (593 BC):
Jin commissioned Sui Hui to annihilate the Chi Di.
Year 8 (592 BC):
Jin sent Xi Ke as an envoy to the state of Qi. From a balcony, the mother of Duke Qing of Qi burst into laughter, for Xi Ke was hunchbacked, while the envoy from Lu limped and the ambassador from Wei was missing an eye. In imitation, Qi dispatched similarly afflicted persons to escort their dignitaries. Outraged, Xi Ke returned to the banks of the Yellow River and vowed, “May the River Deity bear witness—I shall have my revenge against Qi!” Upon returning to Jin, he petitioned the king for an attack on Qi. When King Jing of Jin inquired about the rationale, Xi Ke was told, “You are acting out of personal vendetta; how can you imperil the state?” Nevertheless, the sovereign disregarded this admonition. In a twist of fate, the aged Wei Wenzi resigned and recommended Xi Ke, who subsequently assumed the reins of state affairs.
Year 9 (591 BC):
King Zhuang of Chu passed away. Meanwhile, Jin’s offensive against Qi was halted only when Qi dispatched Crown Prince Qiang to Jin as a hostage.
Spring of Year 11 (589 BC):
During the spring, Qi attacked Lu and seized the city of Long, prompting Lu to urgently appeal to Wei. Both states, via Xi Ke’s intercession and bribery, secured Jin’s support. Jin then dispatched Xi Ke, Luan Shu, and Han Jue, leading eight hundred chariots in a joint campaign with Lu and Wei against Qi. In the summer, at a battle near An with Duke Qing of Qi, the Duke was injured and trapped; he exchanged seats with his attendant and dismounted in search of water, thereby facilitating his escape. The Qi forces were routed, and Jin pursued the fleeing enemy all the way to the Qi capital. Duke Qing proffered precious treasures in a bid for peace, but Jin declined. Xi Ke declared, “We must secure Xiao Tong’s nephew as a hostage.” A Qi emissary protested, “Xiao Tong’s nephew is none other than Duke Qing’s own mother. Since his mother is as dear to us as the mother of our king, how can we possibly seize her? Your demands are utterly unprincipled; we request another engagement in battle.” Ultimately, Jin consented to negotiate peace with Qi and withdrew.
Subsequent Developments:
In a separate episode, Wu Chen—minister to Duke Shen of Chu—eloped with Xia Ji and fled to Jin, whereupon the Jin sovereign appointed him as the Grand Officer of Xingyi.
Winter of Year 12 (588 BC):
During the winter, Duke Qing of Qi arrived in Jin with the intent to bestow upon King Jing the title of “King.” Humbly, King Jing declined the honor. It was also in this period that Jin established its “Six Armies,” appointing Han Jue, Gong Shuo, Zhao Chuan, Xun Zui, Zhao Kuo, and Zhao Zhan as ministers. Moreover, Zhi Ying returned to Jin from Chu.
Year 13 (587 BC):
When Duke Cheng of Lu came to pay homage, the Jin king’s discourteous reception infuriated him, leading to his defection from Jin. Shortly thereafter, Jin attacked Zheng and captured the city of Si.
Year 14 (586 BC):
A landslide occurred on Liangshan. When the Jin sovereign inquired of Bu Bo Zong, he was told that the incident was hardly cause for alarm.
Year 16 (584 BC):
General Zi Fan of Chu, harboring deep resentment against Wu Chen, exterminated his entire clan. Enraged, Wu Chen sent Zi Fan a letter proclaiming, “I shall certainly render you weary with endless errands!” Subsequently, he petitioned to serve as an envoy to the state of Wu, appointing his own son to instruct the Wu soldiers in chariot warfare. Thus, the states of Wu and Jin initiated diplomatic contacts, agreeing to jointly campaign against Chu.
Year 17 (583 BC):
Jin executed Zhao Tong and Zhao Kuo and obliterated their entire lineage. Han Jue lamented, “How can we ever forget the contributions of Zhao Shuai and Zhao Dun? How can we allow their lineage to be extinguished?” In response, the Jin sovereign appointed Zhao Wu, an illegitimate scion of the Zhao clan, as the heir of the Zhao lineage and granted him a city.
In the summer of the 19th year (581 BCE), Duke Jing fell gravely ill and, in anticipation of his demise, appointed Crown Prince Shouman as sovereign—a ruler thereafter known as Duke Li. A month later, Duke Jing passed away.
In the first year of Duke Li’s reign (580 BCE), still fresh from his accession, he sought to make peace with the feudal lords by forging an alliance with Duke Huan of Qin across the Yellow River. Yet upon returning to his state, Qin reneged on the covenant and, in collusion with the Zhai, conspired to attack Jin. In the third year (578 BCE), Jin dispatched Prime Minister Lü Xiang to censure Qin and, seizing the opportunity, rallied the feudal lords to mount a punitive expedition against Qin. As the armies reached the Jing River, the Jin forces triumphed over the Qin troops at Masui and captured Qin’s eminent general, Cheng Chai.
In the fifth year (576 BCE), the trio—Xì Qí, Xì Chōu, and Xì Zhì—wounded Bo Zong so grievously that the Duke of Jin ordered his execution. Bo Zong, whose frank propensity for counsel had once earned him favor, inadvertently brought this calamity upon himself, and the people consequently lost confidence in Duke Li.
During the spring of the sixth year (575 BCE), the State of Zheng betrayed Jin by allying with Chu, an act that greatly incensed the Duke of Jin. Luan Shu declared, “We cannot afford to lose the loyalty of our feudal lords in our generation.” Consequently, Jin mobilized its army against Zheng, with Duke Li personally commanding the troops as they crossed the Yellow River in May. When news arrived that the Chu army was advancing to offer aid, Fan Wenzi entreated Duke Li to withdraw. Yet Xì Zhì argued, “If we dispatch our forces to subdue traitors but then retreat before a formidable enemy, how can we expect to issue commands to the lords?” Thus, Jin and Chu clashed. On a day designated Guisi, Jin’s archers struck King Gong of Chu in the eye, and the Chu forces were defeated at Yanling. In the aftermath, Zifan gathered the remnant troops and sought to placate his soldiers in hopes of waging another war with Jin—a prospect that alarmed the Jin leadership. King Gong summoned Zifan, but as his attendant Shuyanggu offered him wine, Zifan became so inebriated that he failed to appear, provoking the king’s wrath; in his anger, Zifan took his own life. King Gong then led his forces back to Chu, and Jin’s victory greatly enhanced its prestige among the feudal lords, emboldening it to aspire toward hegemony.
Duke Li, renowned for his many favored concubines, upon his return sought to dispense with the established ministers and instead appoint the brothers of his consorts. One such consort’s brother, Xu Tong, who had long been at odds with Xì Zhì—and whose rivalry was further stoked by Luan Shu’s resentment that Xì Zhì had neglected his own stratagem (despite its success against the Chu army)—secretly dispatched envoys to offer apologies to Chu. In response, Chu sent its own emissaries to deceive Duke Li by asserting, “At the battle of Yanling it was, in fact, Xì Zhì who summoned Chu to join the fray; he intended to incite rebellion and pave the way for Prince Zhou’s accession. Alas, our allies were unprepared, and the plot failed.” Duke Li relayed this insinuation to Luan Shu, who remarked, “This account appears plausible; perhaps you should send men on a covert reconnaissance to Zhou Jing.” Accordingly, Duke Li dispatched Xì Zhì to Zhou Jing, and Luan Shu arranged a meeting between Prince Zhou and Xì Zhì—the latter unaware of his betrayal. When Duke Li later verified these claims, his loathing for Xì Zhì grew, and he resolved to execute him.
In the eighth year (573 BCE), while Duke Li was out hunting and drinking with his favored consorts, Xì Zhì prepared an offering by slaughtering a pig for him. When a eunuch seized the offering, Xì Zhì shot the eunuch dead. Incensed, Duke Li exclaimed, “Jizi has insulted me!” and resolved to eliminate the three members of the Xì clan—even though he had yet to act. Seizing the initiative, Xì Qí attacked Duke Li, declaring, “Even if I perish, our sovereign is destined to suffer.” Xì Zhì retorted, “Loyalty precludes opposing one’s ruler; wisdom forbids harming the people; valor prevents inciting strife. Without these three virtues, who would be inclined to aid me? I might as well die.” On the Renwu day of the twelfth month, Duke Li ordered Xu Tong to lead 800 soldiers to assault and execute the three Xì clan members. Capitalizing on the chaos, Xu Tong also seized Luan Shu and Zhong Xingyan in the court, declaring, “If these two are not put to death, calamity will assuredly befall you, my sovereign.” Duke Li lamented, “I have already slain three ministers this morning; I cannot bear to spill more blood.” Xu Tong retorted, “Others would not hesitate to kill you.” Undeterred, Duke Li apologized to Luan Shu, explaining that the measures were solely intended to punish the transgressions of the Xì clan: “All officials shall be reinstated.” The two then kowtowed together, exclaiming, “How fortunate, how fortunate!” Subsequently, Duke Li appointed Xu Tong as a minister.
In an intercalary month on the day Yimao, while Duke Li was visiting the residence of the Jiang Li family for a leisurely outing, Luan Shu and Zhong Xingyan dispatched their adherents to ambush and arrest him. Duke Li was imprisoned, Xu Tong was slain, and envoys were sent from Zhou Jing to escort Prince Zhou to Jin, whereupon he was enthroned as the ruler—known henceforth as Duke Dao of Jin.
In the first year of Duke Dao’s reign (572 BCE), on the day designated Gengshen in the first month, Luan Shu and Zhong Xingyan executed Duke Li, who was interred with only a single chariot as his funerary honor. Duke Li, having been confined for six days before his death, expired; and on the Gengwu day—ten days after his passing—Zhiying welcomed Prince Zhou into Jin. Upon their arrival at Jiang, through the sacrifice of a chicken and in alliance with the ministers, Prince Zhou was enthroned as Duke Dao. On the Xinsi day, the court paid homage at the Wu Palace, and on the Yiyou day of the second month, Prince Zhou officially ascended the throne.
Duke Dao Zhou’s ancestry traced to his grandfather Jie—a son of Duke Xiang of Jin who, though he never ascended the throne, was known as Huan Shu and was dearly favored. Huan Shu begot Hui Bo Tan, who in turn fathered Duke Dao Zhou. At the time of his accession, Zhou was but fourteen years old. He proclaimed, “My grandfather and father, having failed to ascend the throne, sought refuge in Zhou and perished in exile; I have long felt estranged and never aspired to be Duke of Jin. Yet today, the ministers, mindful of the wishes of Duke Wen and Duke Xiang, bestow their favor by enthroning the descendants of Huan Shu. Relying on the venerable authority of our ancestors and the ministers, I have been entrusted with the sacred duty of preserving Jin’s ancestral rites—dare I not labor with utmost diligence? The ministers must likewise support me!” Consequently, he expelled the seven ministers disloyal to the sovereign, restored the ancient achievements, dispensed benevolence among the people, and provided succor to the descendants of those heroes who had accompanied Duke Wen on his return to Jin. In the autumn, he waged war against Zheng; after inflicting a crushing defeat upon the Zheng forces, his campaign turned next toward the State of Chen.
Three Years (570 BC): The State of Jin convened a meeting with the feudal lords. Duke Dao inquired among his ministers for capable candidates to appoint. Qi Sha recommended Jie Hu—ironically, his adversary. When the duke inquired if there were others, Qi Sha nominated his own son, Qi Wu. A gentleman remarked, “Qi Sha has truly been impartial; in public he does not avoid recommending an enemy, and in private he does not refrain from naming his son.”
During the assembly with the feudal lords, Duke Dao’s younger brother, Yang Gan, disrupted the military formation, prompting Wei Jiang to slay his charioteer. Incensed, Duke Dao was eventually persuaded by counsel to recognize Wei Jiang’s exemplary virtue. Consequently, he entrusted Wei Jiang with the administration of state affairs and dispatched him to negotiate peace with the Rong; in time, the Rong became exceedingly friendly toward Jin.
Eleven Years (562 BC): Duke Dao declared, “Since I began employing Wei Jiang, on nine occasions we have convened with the feudal lords and reconciled with the Rong and Di peoples—all owing to the merits of Master Wei.” The duke bestowed upon him an ensemble of musicians, which he initially declined thrice before finally accepting.
In winter, the State of Qin seized the oak forests of Jin.
Fourteen Years (559 BC): Jin dispatched six ministers to lead the feudal lords in an expedition against Qin. They crossed the Jing River and routed the Qin forces, pursuing them until they reached the Zhanlin, where they eventually withdrew.
Fifteen Years (558 BC): Duke Dao consulted Shi Kuang about the principles of governance. Shi Kuang opined, “Only benevolence and righteousness form the foundation.” That winter, Duke Dao passed away, and his son, Duke Ping, ascended the throne.
In the first year of Duke Ping’s reign (557 BC), Jin waged war against the State of Qi. During the battle at Mi Xia, Qi’s ruler, King Ling of Qi, clashed with Jin; Qi’s forces were defeated and forced to retreat. Yan Ying remarked, “You have never possessed true valor—why persist in warfare?” Consequently, the Qi forces withdrew. Jin, in relentless pursuit, encircled Linzi, razing all dwellings within the outer city and slaughtering its garrison and civilians. The Jin army advanced eastward to the Jiao River and southward to the Yi River; when the Qi troops tenaciously held their fortifications, Jin eventually retreated.
Six Years (552 BC): Duke Xiang of Lu paid homage to the Jin ruler. Luan Cheng of Jin, having committed an offense, fled to the State of Qi. In the eighth year (550 BC), Duke Zhuang of Qi clandestinely dispatched Luan Cheng to Quwo, accompanied by military forces. As the Qi army ascended the Taihang Mountains, Luan Cheng incited a rebellion from within Quwo and attacked Wei Jiang. Caught entirely unawares, Duke Ping contemplated suicide, but Fan Xianzi intervened, deploying his personal guards to counterattack Luan Cheng. Defeated, Luan Cheng retreated to Quwo, where the locals besieged him. Luan Cheng was slain, and his kinsmen were exterminated. Notably, Luan Cheng was the grandson of Luan Shu. Prior to his incursion against Wei Jiang, he had colluded with the Wei clan. Upon learning of Luan Cheng’s failure, Duke Zhuang of Qi withdrew, seized the city of Chao Ge in Jin, and departed—seeking retribution for the earlier conflict at Linzi.
Ten Years (548 BC): In Qi, Cui Shu assassinated the ruler, Duke Zhuang. Seizing the opportunity amid Qi’s turmoil, forces from Gaotang defeated the Qi army and withdrew, avenging a previous clash at Taihang.
Fourteen Years (544 BC): Yanling Jizi of the State of Wu paid an envoy visit to Jin, engaging in discussions with Zhao Wenzi, Han Xuanzi, and Wei Xianzi. Afterwards, he declared, “The reins of power in Jin are destined to ultimately fall into the hands of these three families.”
Nineteen Years (539 BC): The State of Qi sent Yan Ying to Jin, where he conversed with Shu Xiang. Shu Xiang lamented, “Jin is in decline. Duke Ping imposes heavy taxes on the people to fund the construction of ponds, terraces, and towers, neglecting genuine state affairs. With governance left in the hands of private factions, how can longevity be expected?” Yan Ying concurred with this assessment.
Twenty-Two Years (536 BC): Jin waged war against the State of Yan. Twenty-Six Years (532 BC): Duke Ping died, and his son, Duke Zhao Yi, ascended the throne.
Duke Zhao passed away in the sixth year (526 BC). Although the six powerful ministers of Jin had grown strong, the ruling house had become feeble. Consequently, Duke Qing ascended the throne after the incumbent fell gravely ill.
In the sixth year of Duke Qing’s reign (520 BC), King Jing of Zhou died, sparking a contest among the princes for the throne. The six ministers of Jin quelled the ensuing disorder within the Zhou royal family and installed King Jing.
In the ninth year (517 BC), the Lu Ji clan ousted their ruler, Duke Zhao, who then took refuge with Marquis Qian. In the eleventh year (515 BC), emissaries from the States of Wei and Song implored Jin to return the exiled ruler of Lu. Ji Pingzi covertly bribed Fan Xianzi, who, upon receiving the bribe, assured the Jin ruler, “The Ji family is blameless.” Ultimately, the ruler of Lu was not repatriated.
In the twelfth year (514 BC), internecine slander unfolded before the Jin ruler between the grandson of the Qi clan minister, Qi Sha, and the son of Shu Xiang. The six ministers, intent on curtailing the ruler’s power, executed the entire families of the disputants in accordance with the law, dividing their fiefs into ten counties and assigning each county’s leadership to their sons. Consequently, the power of the Jin ruler diminished further while the ministers consolidated their strength.
In the 14th year (512 BCE), Lord Qing died, and his son, Duke Dinggong Wu, ascended the throne.
In the 11th year of Duke Dinggong’s reign (501 BCE), Yang Hu of Lu fled to Jin, where he was warmly received and lodged by Zhao Yang and Jianzi.
In the 12th year (500 BCE), Confucius was appointed Prime Minister of Lu.
In the 15th year (497 BCE), Zhao Yang and the Handan official Wu reached an accord to relocate the five prominent families of Wei Gong to Jinyang. When the Handan patriarchs refused to consent, Zhao Yang deemed Wu untrustworthy and conspired to have him killed. In retaliation, Wu, along with Zhongxing Yin and Fan Jishe, personally attacked Zhao Yang, who was forced to retreat to Jinyang for defense. Duke Dinggong then laid siege to Jinyang. Subsequently, Xun Li, Han Buxin, and Wei Chi—who harbored a grudge against both Fan Jishe and Zhongxing Yin—deployed their forces against the two. Defeated by the Jin army, Fan Jishe and Zhongxing Yin rebelled but were soon routed; they fled to Chaoge, where they fortified themselves within the city. Meanwhile, Han Buxin and Wei Chi interceded on Zhao Yang’s behalf by apologizing to the Jin sovereign, who then pardoned him and restored his position.
In the 22nd year (490 BCE), Jin defeated Fan Jishe and the clan of Zhongxing, driving them to seek refuge in Qi.
In the 30th year (482 BCE), Duke Dinggong met with King Fuchai of Wu at Huangchi, as both contended for supremacy. At that juncture, Zhao Yang yielded, ultimately allowing King Fuchai to emerge as the preeminent leader.
In the 31st year (481 BCE), Tian Chang of Qi assassinated his own sovereign, Duke Jian, and installed Duke Ping—Duke Jian’s brother—as ruler.
In the 33rd year (479 BCE), Confucius passed away.
In the 37th year (475 BCE), Duke Dinggong died, and his son, Duke Chugong Zao, ascended the throne.
In the 17th year of Duke Chugong’s reign (458 BCE), Zhibo, in conjunction with Zhao Yang, Han Buxin, and Wei Chi, partitioned the territories of the descendants of Fan Jishe and Zhongxing Yin, incorporating them into their own feudal holdings.
Duke Chugong, filled with ambition, entreated the states of Qi and Lu, seeking an opportunity to subdue the Four Ministers. Alarmed by his designs, the Four Ministers counterattacked and launched an assault against him. Duke Chugong fled toward Qi, but perished along the way.
Consequently, Zhibo installed his great‐grandson, Jiao, as the ruler of Jin—this is known as Duke Ai.
Duke Ai’s grandfather, Yong, was the younger son of Duke Zhao, known by the sobriquet Daizi. Daizi begot Ji, who was closely allied with Zhibo but died prematurely. Consequently, aspiring to annex Jin yet reluctant to act directly, Zhibo installed Ji’s son, Jiao, as ruler. At that time, Zhibo controlled all state affairs in Jin, leaving Duke Ai effectively unable to govern. Thus, Zhibo acquired the territories of Fan Jishe and Zhongxing Yin, emerging as the most formidable among the Six Ministers.
In the 4th year of Duke Ai’s reign (453 BCE), Zhao Xiangzi, Han Kangzi, and Wei Huanzi collaboratively assassinated Zhibo and annexed all his lands.
In the 18th year (439 BCE), Duke Ai died, and his son, Duke You Liu, ascended the throne.
During Duke You’s rule, the weakened Jin sovereign, intimidated by his powerful ministers, resorted to paying homage to the monarchs of Han, Zhao, and Wei. Consequently, the Jin ruler retained only the territories of Jiang and Quwo, while the remainder was absorbed into the Three Jin.
In the 15th year (423 BCE), Marquess Wen of Wei first ascended the throne. Then, in the 18th year (420 BCE), Duke You, indulging in licentious debauchery, clandestinely departed the city by night and was slain by bandits. Marquess Wen dispatched troops to quell the ensuing disorder in Jin and installed Duke You’s son, Zhi, who became known as Duke Lie.
In the 19th year of Duke Lie’s reign (401 BCE), King Weilie of Zhou bestowed enfeoffments upon the states of Zhao, Han, and Wei, designating them as feudal lords.
In the 27th year (393 BCE), Duke Lie died, and his son, Duke Xiaogong Qi, succeeded him.
In the 9th year of Duke Xiaogong’s reign (384 BCE), Marquess Wu of Wei, having recently ascended, launched an incursion against Handan but, failing to secure victory, soon withdrew.
In the 17th year (376 BCE), Duke Xiaogong died, and his son, Duke Jinggong Jujiu, ascended the throne. That very year also marked the inaugural year of King Wei of Qi (377 BCE).
In the 2nd year of Duke Jing’s reign (376 BCE), after the conquest of Jin by Marquess Wu of Wei, Marquis Ai of Han, and Zhao Jinghou, the territory of Jin was partitioned into three segments. Duke Jing was reduced to the status of a commoner, and Jin’s ancestral sacrificial rites were consequently discontinued.
The Grand Historian observed:
“Duke Wen of Jin was celebrated in antiquity as a paragon of wisdom and virtue—having endured nineteen years of exile in abject poverty, he, upon his accession, enacted generous rewards, even neglecting to honor Jie Zitui. How much less, then, can one expect from rulers marked by arrogance and extravagance? After Duke Ling was assassinated, Dukes Cheng and Jing ruled with unyielding severity, and under Duke Lie, oppression grew even harsher; ministers lived in constant fear of execution amid ensuing turmoil. Following the downfall of Duke Xiaogong, Jin steadily weakened, with the Six Ministers monopolizing power. Truly, governing one’s subjects is never an easy task!”