The ancestors of the Qin were descendants of Emperor Zhuanxu, through his granddaughter, Nü Xiu. While weaving, Nü Xiu swallowed an egg that had fallen from a swallow, and she later gave birth to a son named Da Ye. Da Ye married the daughter of the Shao Dian tribe, Nü Hua. Nü Hua gave birth to Da Fei, who assisted the Great Yu in controlling the floods. After successfully taming the waters, Emperor Shun, to honor Yu’s achievements, gifted him a black jade tablet. Yu accepted the reward, stating, “The flood control was not accomplished by me alone; it was thanks to Da Fei’s assistance.” Emperor Shun said, “Ah! Da Fei, you helped Yu succeed in controlling the floods! I will grant you a black flag with fluttering ribbons. Your descendants will prosper.” He then married him to a beautiful woman from the Yao clan. Da Fei accepted the gift with the proper rituals and was entrusted by Shun with the task of domesticating wild animals, most of which were successfully tamed. This person was Bai Yi. Emperor Shun granted him the surname Ying.
Da Fei had two sons: one named Da Lian, who became the ancestor of the Niao Su tribe, and the other named Ruo Mu, the ancestor of the Fei clan. Fei Chang, the great-grandson of Ruo Mu, had descendants who lived both in the central plains and among the Yi tribes. Fei Chang, during the reign of the tyrant King Jie of the Xia dynasty, left Xia and allied with Shang Tang. He served as a charioteer for Tang and helped defeat King Jie at the Battle of Ming Tiao. Da Lian’s great-grandson was Meng Xi, also known as Zhong Yan, who was very bird-like in appearance but could speak human language. Hearing of their talents, Emperor Tai Wu wanted them to serve as his charioteers, so he consulted an oracle, which gave an auspicious reading. The emperor summoned them and arranged marriages for them. After Emperor Tai Wu, the descendants of Zhong Yan continued to serve the Yin dynasty, and the Ying clan became increasingly powerful, eventually becoming feudal lords.
Zhong Yan’s great-grandson, Zhong Huo, lived in the western region, guarding the borders. Zhong Huo had a son named Fei Lian. Fei Lian’s son, E Lai, was known for his great strength, while Fei Lian himself was swift in running. Both father and son served the tyrannical King Zhou of the Shang dynasty with their skills and strength. When King Wu of Zhou launched his campaign against King Zhou, E Lai was killed in the battle. At that time, Fei Lian was serving as an envoy to the northern states. Upon returning and learning of King Zhou’s death, Fei Lian had no one to report to, so he built an altar at Mount Huo to pay his respects to the deceased king. During the ritual, he discovered a stone coffin with inscriptions that read: “The Heavenly Emperor commands you not to participate in the calamities of the Shang dynasty. A stone coffin is granted to you to honor your clan.” After Fei Lian’s death, he was buried at Mount Huo. Fei Lian had a son named Ji Sheng, who fathered Meng Zeng. Meng Zeng gained favor with King Cheng of Zhou and became known as Zhai Gao Lang. Gao Lang’s son was Heng Fu, and Heng Fu’s son was Zao Fu. Zao Fu, skilled in driving chariots, gained favor with King Mu of Zhou. King Mu acquired four exceptional horses named Ji, Wenli, Hua, and Li, which he used to travel west. He became so enraptured by the horses that he lost track of time. When the state of Xu rebelled, Zao Fu drove the chariot at an accelerated pace, covering a thousand miles a day, and helped quell the rebellion. In gratitude, King Mu granted Zhao City to Zao Fu, and his descendants from that point onward adopted the surname Zhao. From Fei Lian to Ji Sheng, five generations later, Zao Fu’s descendants eventually settled in Zhao City. During the Spring and Autumn period, Yue Shuai, an official of the Jin state, was one of his descendants.
E Lai’s son, Ge, died young, but he had a son named Nü Fang. Nü Fang’s son was Pang Gao, who fathered Tai Ji, who in turn fathered Da Luo. Da Luo’s son was Fei Zi, who resided in Quan Qiu and had a deep love for horses and other livestock, excelling in breeding them. The people of Quan Qiu informed King Xiao of Zhou, who summoned Fei Zi to manage horses between the Qian and Wei rivers. The horses proliferated in great numbers. King Xiao intended for Fei Zi to succeed Da Luo, but Da Luo’s wife, the daughter of the Duke of Shen, gave birth to Cheng, who became the heir. The Duke of Shen approached King Xiao, saying, “My ancestors were from Lishan, and my ancestor’s wife, a descendant of Zhong Yan, gave birth to Zhong Huo, who contributed to Zhou by guarding the western borders, ensuring peace. Now, I have married my daughter to Da Luo, and he has given birth to Cheng, who will be the heir. This union will further strengthen the Zhou state.” King Xiao responded, “In the past, Bai Yi, entrusted by Emperor Shun with domesticating livestock, received land as a reward and adopted the surname Ying. Now, his descendants help me with horse breeding, and I shall grant them land as a vassal state.” He gave them land in the Qin region to manage the Ying clan’s ancestral rites, thus establishing the Qin Ying lineage. However, he did not eliminate Cheng’s claim to Da Luo’s legacy, ensuring continued peace with the western tribes.
Qin Ying’s son was Qin Hou, who ruled for ten years before his death. Qin Hou’s son was Gong Bo, who ruled for three years before passing away. Gong Bo’s son was Qin Zhong.
Try today’s I Ching hexagram：Daily I Ching Online Hexagram Tool
In the third year of Qin Zhong’s reign, King Li of Zhou became tyrannical, and some of the feudal lords turned against him. The Western Rong tribes rebelled against the Zhou Dynasty and annihilated the entire family of Qianqiu Daluo. After King Xuan of Zhou ascended the throne, he appointed Qin Zhong as a high-ranking minister and sent him to subdue the Western Rong. However, the Western Rong killed Qin Zhong. Qin Zhong ruled as Duke for 23 years before he died at the hands of the Western Rong.
Qin Zhong had five sons, the eldest of whom was Duke Zhuang. King Xuan of Zhou summoned Duke Zhuang and his brothers, providing them with 7,000 soldiers and commanding them to defeat the Western Rong. They were victorious, and in reward, King Xuan granted Duke Zhuang and his descendants, including the ancestral land of Daluo at Qianqiu, all of which became their domain. He appointed them as the Western Chui Ministers.
Duke Zhuang settled in their ancestral land, Western Qianqiu, and had three sons. His eldest son, Shi Fu, declared, “The Western Rong killed my grandfather, Qin Zhong. I will not return home until I have slain their king.” Thus, he led an army against the Western Rong and passed the title of heir to his younger brother, Duke Xiang. Duke Xiang became the Crown Prince. Duke Zhuang reigned for 44 years before passing away, and Crown Prince Xiang ascended the throne.
In the first year of Duke Xiang’s reign (777 BCE), he married his sister, Miao Ying, to the King of the Western Rong. In the second year (776 BCE), the Western Rong besieged Qianqiu, and Shi Fu fought back, only to be captured by them. More than a year later, the Western Rong released Shi Fu. In the seventh year (771 BCE), King You of Zhou, captivated by his concubine Bao Si, deposed Crown Prince Yijiu and installed Bao Si’s son, Bo Fu, as the heir. King You repeatedly lit beacons to summon the feudal lords to the capital in an attempt to make Bao Si smile, which led the lords to rebel against him. The Western Rong, along with the Qin and other forces, attacked the Zhou Dynasty and killed King You at Lishan.
Duke Xiang led an army to rescue the Zhou Dynasty, displaying great military strength and achieving significant victories. To escape the ongoing harassment from the Qian Rong, King Ping of Zhou relocated the capital eastward to Luoyi, and Duke Xiang escorted him there. King Ping granted Duke Xiang lands west of Mount Qi, declaring, “The Western Rong disregard righteousness, invading our territories of Mount Qi and Feng Shui. If Qin can expel the Western Rong, the lands they occupied will belong to Qin.” Thus, they swore an oath, and King Ping bestowed upon Duke Xiang both lands and titles.
At this time, the Qin state officially became a feudal state, exchanging envoys and formal greetings with other states. Duke Xiang also made offerings to the Heavenly Emperor at the Western Shrine using three small horses, yellow cattle, and male goats. In the twelfth year (766 BCE), he led a military campaign against the Western Rong, reaching Mount Qi, where he passed away. He had a son, Wen Gong.
In the first year of Wen Gong’s reign (765 BCE), Wen Gong resided in the Western Chui Palace. In the third year (763 BCE), he led 700 soldiers eastward for a hunting expedition. In the fourth year (762 BCE), they reached the confluence of the Qian and Wei rivers. Wen Gong remarked, “In the past, the Zhou Dynasty granted this land to my ancestor Qin Ying as a fief, and now we have become a feudal state.” After consulting the diviners, who deemed the area auspicious, he began constructing a settlement there. In the tenth year (756 BCE), he started building a sacrificial altar to the heavens at Fu (Fu), using cattle, sheep, and pigs in offerings. In the thirteenth year (753 BCE), he established a historian’s office to record major events, and most of the people were educated. In the sixteenth year (750 BCE), Wen Gong launched a campaign against the Western Rong, decisively defeating them.
Wen Gong then gathered the remaining people of the Zhou Dynasty and claimed the lands, extending his domain to Mount Qi, while offering the lands east of it back to the Zhou Emperor. In the nineteenth year (747 BCE), he obtained a rare stone called “Chen Bao.” In the twentieth year (746 BCE), he began enforcing a law that decreed the eradication of three entire families for major crimes. In the twenty-seventh year (739 BCE), while cutting down a large zither tree in Nanshan, a great blue ox fled into Feng Shui. In the forty-eighth year (718 BCE), Wen Gong’s crown prince passed away and was posthumously given the title Jing Gong. Jing Gong’s eldest son succeeded him as crown prince and later ascended the throne as Ning Gong.
In the second year of Ning Gong’s reign (714 BCE), he moved the capital to Pingyang and sent armies to conquer the Dang She tribe. In the third year (713 BCE), he fought against a Bo tribe faction of the Western Rong, and the Bo King fled to the Western Rong. He then eradicated the Dang She tribe. In the fourth year (712 BCE), the Duke of Lu, Zi Hui, killed his ruler, Duke Yin. In the twelfth year (704 BCE), Ning Gong attacked the Dang tribe, capturing it. Ning Gong had begun ruling at the age of ten and reigned for twelve years before passing away, with his burial at Mount Xi. He had three sons: the eldest, Wu Gong, became Crown Prince; the second son, De Gong, was the younger brother of Wu Gong; and his concubine, Lu Ji, bore an additional son.
After Ning Gong’s death, the chief minister Fu Ji, along with Wei Lei and the three fathers, deposed the Crown Prince and installed the out-of-wedlock son as ruler. In the sixth year (698 BCE), the three fathers and their allies assassinated the out-of-wedlock son. He had reigned for six years before his death. Once again, the three fathers installed Wu Gong as the rightful ruler.
In the first year of Wu Gong’s reign (697 BCE), he launched a campaign against the Pengxi clan and settled at the palace at Pingyang, beneath Mount Hua. In the third year (695 BCE), he killed the three fathers and eradicated their entire families for having murdered the out-of-wedlock son. In the tenth year (688 BCE), Wu Gong attacked the Rong tribes of Gui and Ji, establishing counties in Du and Zheng, and also destroyed the small state of Guo.
In the thirteenth year (685 BCE), the Qi people, led by Guan Zhi Fu and Lian Cheng, killed their ruler, Duke Xiang, and installed Gongsun Wu Zhi as the new leader. Meanwhile, the Jin state conquered the states of Huo, Wei, and Geng. The Qi state then executed Wu Zhi, Guan Zhi Fu, and Lian Cheng, installing Duke Huan of Qi as ruler, thus making both Qi and Jin major powers.
In the nineteenth year (679 BCE), Duke Wu of Quwo, from the state of Jin, overthrew the ruler of Jin, Duke Min, and began to rule as Duke of Jin. At this time, Duke Huan of Qi was asserting his dominance over the region, controlling the area around Juantu.
In the twentieth year (678 BCE), Duke Wu of Qin passed away and was buried in Yongyi, Pingyang. During this period, human sacrifices were introduced, with sixty-six people put to death as part of his burial rites. Duke Wu had a son, Bai, who was not named his successor but was instead given the title of Marquis in Pingyang. Duke Wu’s brother, Duke De, was then installed as the ruler.
In the first year of Duke De’s reign (677 BCE), he moved into the grand Zheng Palace in Yongcheng. He made offerings of 300 cattle, sheep, and pigs at the Fu Altar to the heavens and the earth. Diviners were consulted to determine if it was auspicious to settle in Yong, and the results indicated that future generations would eventually move to the banks of the Yellow River to water their horses. The lords of Liang and Rui came to pay their respects. In the second year (676 BCE), Duke De introduced the practice of observing “Dog Days” and instituted the ritual of slaughtering dogs for sacrifice to expel heat and evil spirits. Duke De did not ascend the throne until he was thirty-three years old, and he ruled for only two years before his death. He had three sons: the eldest, Duke Xuan; the second, Duke Cheng; and the youngest, Duke Mu. Duke Xuan succeeded him.
In the first year of Duke Xuan’s reign (675 BCE), the states of Wei and Yan attacked the Zhou royal court, expelling King Hui and installing Prince Tuí as emperor. In the third year (673 BCE), Duke Zhi of Zheng and Duke Guo of Wei killed Prince Tuí and restored King Hui to the throne. In the fourth year (672 BCE), the Qin state constructed the secret Fu Altar and engaged in a battle at Heyang with the Jin army, emerging victorious.
In the twelfth year (664 BCE), Duke Xuan passed away. He had nine sons, none of whom succeeded him, and thus his younger brother, Duke Cheng, was made ruler.
In the first year of Duke Cheng’s reign (663 BCE), the lords of Liang and Rui visited to offer their respects. Duke Huan of Qi launched a military campaign against the Shan Rong, setting up camp in Guzhu.
Duke Cheng ruled for four years before passing away. He had seven sons, none of whom succeeded him, and so his younger brother, Duke Mu, ascended the throne.
In the first year of Duke Mu’s reign (659 BCE), he personally led an army to subdue the Maojin tribe, achieving a victory. In the fourth year (656 BCE), he married a woman from Jin, the sister of the Crown Prince Shensheng of Jin. That same year, Duke Huan of Qi launched an attack on the Chu state, reaching Shaoling.
In the fifth year (655 BCE), Duke Xian of Jin destroyed the states of Yu and Guo, capturing their rulers and ministers, including the high-ranking minister, Baili Xī, who had previously been sent by Duke Xian as part of a diplomatic exchange. After capturing Baili Xī, he was made a slave and sent as a tribute to the Qin court upon Duke Mu’s marriage. Baili Xī escaped to the border of Chu, where he was caught. When Duke Mu heard of Baili Xī’s talent, he wished to ransom him, but fearing Chu might refuse, he sent envoys to the King of Chu, offering five black ram hides as payment. Chu agreed and released Baili Xī, who by this time was in his seventies.
Duke Mu then freed Baili Xī from captivity, and the two discussed matters of state. Baili Xī hesitated, saying, “I am a minister of a fallen state. I am not worthy of your inquiry.” Duke Mu replied, “It was the ruler of the Yu state who failed to value you, which led to the state’s demise. This is not your fault.” After three days of conversation, Duke Mu was so impressed with Baili Xī that he entrusted him with the state’s affairs, appointing him as the Grand Minister of Wu Gu. Baili Xī, ever humble, said, “I am not as capable as my friend, Jian Shu. Jian Shu has talent, but no one knows of it. Once, when I wandered seeking a position, I ended up begging for food in Qi, where it was Jian Shu who took me in. Had I not heeded his advice to avoid serving the ruler of Qi, I would have been caught up in the political disaster there. When I served in the Zhou court, I sought employment through my skill with cattle, and Prince Tuí wanted to employ me, but again, Jian Shu advised me to leave before the prince was killed. I also once served the ruler of Yu, knowing he could never truly value me. But my desire for wealth and status led me to stay. Twice I listened to Jian Shu and avoided disaster, but when I didn’t, I found myself captured after Yu’s fall. Thus, I know Jian Shu’s worth.”
Duke Mu, moved by Baili Xī’s words, sent envoys with heavy gifts to invite Jian Shu to become a senior official, thereby making him the chief minister.
In the autumn, Duke Mu personally led an army to attack the state of Jin. The two armies met at Hequ, where a battle ensued. Meanwhile, within the Jin court, the consort Li Ji instigated a rebellion, resulting in the death of Crown Prince Shensheng at Xincheng and the flight of Princes Chong’er and Yiwuy.
In the ninth year (651 BCE), Duke Huan of Qi convened a conference with the various regional lords at Kuiqiu.
Duke Xian of Jin passed away. His successor, the son of Li Ji, was Xi Qi. However, his minister, Li Ke, assassinated Xi Qi. Xu Xi then placed Zhuo Zi on the throne, but Li Ke, again, killed both Zhuo Zi and Xu Xi. In response, Prince Yiwu sought assistance from the state of Qin to help him reclaim his position in Jin. Duke Mu of Qin agreed and sent Baili Xī to lead an army to escort Yiwu. Yiwu told the Qin officials, “If I manage to regain the throne, I will cede the eight cities west of the Yellow River to Qin.” However, once he ascended the throne in Jin, Yiwu went back on his word, sending Pi Zheng to Qin to apologize and refusing to relinquish the promised cities, even going so far as to kill Li Ke. Pi Zheng, upon hearing of Yiwu’s betrayal, feared for his life and confided in Duke Mu, saying, “The people of Jin do not truly want Yiwu as their ruler; they wish to install Chong’er instead. Now that Yiwu has broken his word and killed Li Ke, the plot was devised by Lü Sheng and Xie Rui. Please offer them generous rewards to summon Lü Sheng and Xie Rui to Qin, and then it will be easier to send Chong’er back to Jin.” Duke Mu agreed to this plan, sending envoys with Pi Zheng to bring Lü Sheng and Xie Rui to Qin. However, Lü Sheng and Xie Rui, suspecting treachery, reported Pi Zheng to Yiwu, who had him killed. Pi Zheng’s son, Pi Bao, fled to Qin, advising Duke Mu that the ruler of Jin was unjust and that the people no longer supported him, making it the right time for an attack. Duke Mu, however, was cautious. He responded, “If the people truly disapprove of their ruler, why would they kill their own ministers? The fact that they can kill their ministers indicates that Jin is still unified.” While publicly rejecting Pi Bao’s advice, Duke Mu secretly placed great trust in him.
In the twelfth year (648 BCE), the states of Qi lost their influential ministers, Guan Zhong and Xi Peng.
Meanwhile, a severe drought struck Jin, and they sent an envoy to Qin requesting food aid. Pi Bao advised Duke Mu not to provide aid, suggesting that this was an opportunity to attack Jin while they were weakened. However, when Duke Mu consulted his ministers, Gongsun Zhi remarked, “Droughts and good harvests alternate. We should not withhold aid.” Baili Xī also advised, “Yiwu has offended you, but the people have committed no wrongdoing.” Duke Mu heeded the counsel of both Gongsun Zhi and Baili Xī, ultimately deciding to send grain to Jin. The grain was transported both by land and by water, from Yongdu to Jiangcheng, in a continuous stream.
In the fourteenth year (646 BCE), Qin faced a famine and sought assistance from Jin. Jin’s ministers debated the matter. Guo She suggested, “Now is the perfect time to strike Qin while they are suffering from famine, as it would be an easy victory.” The ruler of Jin, following this advice, began preparations for war. In the fifteenth year (645 BCE), Jin launched a military campaign against Qin. Duke Mu also mobilized his forces, sending Pi Bao to lead the army. On the ninth day of the month, during the battle at Han, Duke Hui of Jin charged ahead of his troops, hoping to seize plunder from the Qin army. However, his warhorse became mired in deep mud, and he was forced to return. Duke Mu, leading his cavalry in pursuit, was surrounded by Jin’s forces. During the confrontation, Duke Mu was injured. At that moment, over three hundred villagers who had once stolen Duke Mu’s prized horses near Qishan came charging in, disregarding their own safety to break through the siege. Their brave action allowed Duke Mu to escape, and they captured the ruler of Jin in the process.
Initially, when Duke Mu lost his prized horse at Qishan, these same villagers had eaten it, and the officials sought to punish them. Duke Mu, however, declared, “A gentleman should not harm people over livestock. I have heard that eating fine horsemeat without wine is harmful to one’s health,” and thus provided the villagers with wine, pardoning them for their actions. Hearing that Qin was about to attack Jin, these villagers, eager to repay their favor, insisted on accompanying the army. During the battle, they rallied to protect Duke Mu when he was surrounded, wielding their weapons in a desperate fight. As a result, Qin captured the ruler of Jin and returned to Qin with him, declaring, “Let all people fast and remain in solitude, for I shall use the ruler of Jin in a sacrificial offering to the supreme deity.” Upon hearing of this, the Zhou emperor, who considered the ruler of Jin a relative, interceded on his behalf. Yiwu’s sister, who was Duke Mu’s wife, also mourned her brother’s fate, saying, “I am unable to save my brother, and now even the emperor must intervene to spare him. This brings dishonor upon the emperor.” In response, Duke Mu, moved by the emperor’s appeal and his wife’s sorrow, made an oath with the ruler of Jin, agreeing to release him and allow him to return to his country. He provided Yiwu with a luxurious residence, gifts of cattle, sheep, and pigs, and treated him with the respect due to a fellow lord. In November, Yiwu was sent back to Jin, where he offered the western territories of the Yellow River to Qin and sent his son, the crown prince Yu, as a hostage to ensure peace. Qin, in return, gave his daughter in marriage to Yu. With this, Qin’s territorial reach had expanded to the eastern banks of the Yellow River.
In the eighteenth year (642 BCE), Duke Huan of Qi passed away. In the twentieth year (640 BCE), Qin conquered the states of Liang and Rui.
Year 22 (638 BCE): Upon hearing of the ruler of Jin’s illness, Ziyu, the son of Jin’s ruler, remarked, “The state of Liang is my mother’s homeland, yet Qin has destroyed it. With so many brothers, after my father’s death, Qin will surely retain me, while Jin will neglect me and appoint another prince in my place.” Thus, Ziyu fled from Qin and returned to Jin.
Year 23 (637 BCE): Duke Hui of Jin passed away, and Ziyu ascended the throne as the ruler, becoming known as Duke Huai of Jin. The Qin ruler, angered by Ziyu’s escape, brought Prince Chong’er of Jin from the state of Chu and arranged for him to marry Ziyu’s former wife. Chong’er initially hesitated but later accepted. Duke Mu of Qin treated Chong’er with the utmost respect and honor.
Year 24 (636 BCE), Spring: Qin sent an emissary to inform the ministers of Jin that they intended to send Chong’er back to his homeland. Jin agreed, and an official delegation was dispatched to escort Chong’er. In the second month, Chong’er ascended to the throne as the Duke of Jin, now known as Duke Wen of Jin. Duke Wen immediately ordered the execution of Ziyu, who was thereafter posthumously called Duke Huai.
That autumn, the younger brother of King Xiang of Zhou, named Dai, used an army of Di tribesmen to rebel against the king. King Xiang fled and sought refuge in the state of Zheng.
Year 25 (635 BCE): King Xiang of Zhou sent envoys to announce his misfortune to the states of Jin and Qin. Duke Mu of Qin led an army to assist Duke Wen of Jin in returning King Xiang to his throne, and together they defeated Dai’s forces, killing him in the process.
Year 28 (632 BCE): Duke Wen of Jin won a decisive victory over the army of Chu at Chengpu.
Year 30 (630 BCE): Duke Mu assisted Duke Wen of Jin in besieging the state of Zheng. The officials of Zheng sent a delegation to Qin, stating, “If Zheng is destroyed, Jin’s power will only increase, which benefits them but not us. A stronger Jin will eventually pose a threat to Qin.” Consequently, Duke Mu withdrew his forces and returned to Qin, and Jin was also compelled to lift the siege.
Year 32 (628 BCE), Winter: Duke Wen of Jin passed away.
In Zheng, a man betrayed his state to Qin, offering to aid in an assault on Zheng’s city gates. Duke Mu consulted with both Jian Shu and Baili Xi on the matter. They both advised, “It is rare for attacks on distant lands, beyond a thousand miles and through many states, to succeed. Moreover, if someone is betraying Zheng, we cannot be certain that our own secrets are not being shared with Zheng.” Despite their counsel, Duke Mu remained resolute. “You do not understand; I have made up my mind,” he declared, and thus he sent an army under the command of Baili Xi’s son, Meng Mingzhi, Jian Shu’s son, Xi Qishu, and Bai Yibing.
On the day the army departed, both Baili Xi and Jian Shu wept bitterly. Duke Mu, upon hearing this, was enraged and asked, “I have sent you on a mission, yet you weep in front of the troops. Why?” The two elders explained, “We dare not hinder the military. Our sons are accompanying the army, and given our advanced age, if they return late, we may never see them again, and that is why we weep.” The two elders then warned their sons, “If the army fails, the disaster will likely come at the treacherous terrain of Mount Xao.”
Year 33 (627 BCE), Spring: The Qin army advanced eastward, passing through Jin’s territory and passing by the northern gate of the Zhou capital. When the Zhou royal grandson, Man, saw the Qin forces, he remarked, “The Qin army lacks manners. They cannot possibly win without a defeat.” As the Qin army reached Huayi, a merchant from Zheng named Xian Gao, who was on his way to sell twelve oxen at the Zhou capital, encountered the Qin forces. Fearing capture or death, Xian Gao offered his oxen as a tribute, saying, “I have heard that your nation plans to attack Zheng. The ruler of Zheng has made preparations for defense, and I have been sent with these twelve oxen to offer goodwill to your soldiers.” The three Qin generals, upon consulting together, concluded, “Since Zheng is already aware of our intentions, an attack is no longer viable.” They then proceeded to destroy Huayi, which was a border town of Jin.
At this time, Duke Wen of Jin had still not been buried. The crown prince, Xiang Gong, furiously declared, “Qin has taken advantage of my father’s recent death to attack our Huayi town.” He promptly dyed his mourning robes black to facilitate military action and mobilized an army to intercept the Qin forces at Mount Xao. The Jin army launched a counterattack, crushing the Qin forces, and none escaped. The Jin forces captured the three Qin generals and brought them back to the capital.
Duke Wen’s wife, the daughter of Duke Mu of Qin, pleaded for the three captured generals, saying, “Duke Mu harbors a deep hatred for these three men, yet I ask you to release them so that the ruler of Qin may have the pleasure of punishing them himself.” The Duke of Jin agreed, releasing the generals. Upon their return to Qin, Duke Mu, in mourning attire, personally greeted the three generals outside the city gates. He tearfully said, “I did not heed the advice of Baili Xi and Jian Shu, and as a result, you three have suffered. What offense have you committed?” Duke Mu then ordered that their original titles and salaries be reinstated and treated them with renewed respect.
Year 34 (626 BCE): Prince Shangchen of Chu killed his father, King Cheng of Chu, and ascended the throne.
At this time, Duke Mu of Qin once again dispatched Meng Mingzhi and others to lead an army against the state of Jin, engaging in battle at Pengya. However, the Qin forces suffered defeat and were forced to retreat.
The King of the Rong sent You Yu on a diplomatic mission to Qin. You Yu, whose ancestors hailed from Jin but who had fled to Rong territory, still spoke the dialect of Jin. Upon learning of Duke Mu’s wisdom, the King of Rong sent You Yu to observe the state of Qin. Duke Mu, eager to impress, showed You Yu his palaces and accumulated wealth. You Yu responded, “If these palaces and treasures were built by spirits, then they would burden the spirits themselves. If they were built by the common people, then they would have caused much suffering to the people.” Duke Mu was intrigued by these words and asked, “The states of the Central Plains manage their affairs through poetry, books, rites, music, and law, yet disturbances still occur from time to time. The Rong, lacking these institutions, how do they govern their people? Would it not be exceedingly difficult?”
You Yu smiled and replied, “It is precisely the presence of these very things—the rites, music, and laws—that is the root cause of the disturbances in the Central Plains. Since the ancient sage Emperor Huangdi created these rites, and even personally practiced them, peace was only achieved in small measure. In later generations, rulers became increasingly indulgent and extravagant, relying on the rigor of laws to govern and supervise the people. The people, fatigued by this, turned against their rulers and demanded benevolence. Mutual resentment between rulers and subjects led to rebellion, murder, and even the extinction of entire families—all due to these rituals and laws. The Rong, on the other hand, do not follow such practices. The rulers treat their people with sincerity and kindness, while the people serve their rulers with loyalty and trust. The governance of the state is thus like a person governing their own body—no need for elaborate methods or systems. This is the true way of the sage ruler.”
After his audience with You Yu, Duke Mu reflected and asked his Minister of the Interior, Wang Liao, “I have heard that the Rong have a sage ruler, and such wisdom could pose a threat to neighboring states. Now that You Yu is talented, he could become my downfall. What should I do?” Wang Liao replied, “The King of Rong resides in a remote area and has never heard the music of the Central Plains. You might consider sending him entertainers, dancing girls, to change his heart and distract him from state affairs. Also, request that You Yu delay his return to Rong, thereby causing a rift between him and his king. If this gap widens, we may be able to capture him. Moreover, the King of Rong enjoys music, so he will certainly lose interest in state matters.”
Duke Mu agreed with this plan. He entertained You Yu as a guest, sitting beside him at the banquet, exchanging cups and discussing the geography and military strength of the Rong. Duke Mu made careful note of all the relevant details. Subsequently, he sent the King of Rong sixteen beautiful courtesans. The King of Rong, enchanted by them, became so absorbed in his newfound pleasures that he neglected his state affairs. For an entire year, he did not move his capital or even change grazing grounds, resulting in the death of half his cattle and horses. Finally, Duke Mu allowed You Yu to return to Rong.
You Yu, having tried repeatedly to advise the King of Rong to no avail, soon found himself summoned once again by Duke Mu. Secretly invited to Qin, You Yu defected and became a subject of Qin. Duke Mu received him with the honor due a guest of high status and sought his counsel on the best course of action to take against the Rong.
Year 36 (624 BCE): Duke Mu treated Meng Mingzhi and his officers with even greater favor and sent them to attack Jin. After crossing the Yellow River, they destroyed their own boats to demonstrate their resolve for a final, decisive battle. The Qin forces delivered a crushing defeat to the Jin army, capturing the royal offices and the land of Xiao (Jiao). This victory avenged the losses from the battle at Mount Xao. The Jin forces retreated behind their city walls, too fearful to engage. Duke Mu, in a gesture of honor for the fallen soldiers of Mount Xao, personally crossed the Yellow River at Maojin, built tombs for the deceased, and conducted a three-day mourning ceremony. He swore an oath before his troops, saying, “Listen well, soldiers! Do not raise your voices, for I swear an oath before you: Ancient rulers always listened humbly to the counsel of the elderly and so avoided mistakes. I now acknowledge my own failure in not heeding the advice of Jian Shu and Baili Xi, and I vow that future generations will remember my mistakes.” The noblemen who heard of this swore tears, moved by Duke Mu’s solemnity. They said, “Ah! Duke Mu of Qin truly cares for his people. His victory was hard-earned, but his reverence for the fallen soldiers is his true triumph.”
Year 37 (623 BCE): Qin, using You Yu’s advice, launched an assault on the King of Rong. They successfully expanded their influence by acquiring twelve new vassal states and secured control over vast territories, thereby asserting dominance over the western Rong region. The Son of Heaven, the ruler of the Zhou, sent an envoy, Shao Gong, carrying military insignia to offer congratulations to Duke Mu.
Year 39 (621 BCE): Duke Mu of Qin passed away and was buried at Yong. His funeral was attended by 177 individuals, including three distinguished ministers from Qin: Yan Xi, Zhong Xing, and Zhen Hu. The people of Qin mourned deeply and composed a poem entitled “The Yellow Birds” in tribute to him.
The wise men remarked, “Duke Mu of Qin expanded the borders of his realm, added new vassals, conquered the mighty state of Jin in the east, and dominated the western Rong region, but he did not achieve the title of hegemon among the lords of the states. This, however, was only natural! Upon his death, he left behind no lasting moral code or laws. Ancient rulers of virtue left behind legacies of morality and good governance; Duke Mu, however, failed in this regard. Worse still, he made his loyal ministers suffer alongside him in death. From this, it can be concluded that Qin will never advance further eastward.”
Duke Mu’s son, with forty heirs, was succeeded by his eldest son, Ying (later known as Duke Kang). Thus, Duke Kang ascended the throne of Qin.
Year 1 of Duke Kang (620 BCE): In the previous year, when Duke Mu of Qin passed away, Duke Xiang of Jin also died. Duke Xiang’s younger brother, Yong, who was born to a woman from Qin, resided in Qin. Zhao Dun, a prominent minister of Jin, sought to install Yong as the new ruler of Jin and sent Sui Hui to bring him back. Qin, however, sent soldiers to escort Yong safely to Linghu. Meanwhile, Jin had already established Duke Xiang’s son as the new ruler and sent forces to attack the Qin army. The Qin forces were defeated, and Sui Hui fled back to Qin.
Year 2 (619 BCE): Qin launched an attack on Jin, seizing Wucheng as a form of revenge for the defeat at Linghu.
Year 4 (617 BCE): Jin retaliated by attacking Qin and capturing Shaoliang.
Year 6 (615 BCE): Qin again attacked Jin, capturing Ji Ma. The two armies clashed at Hequ, where the Jin forces suffered a crushing defeat.
Jin officials, worried that Sui Hui’s stay in Qin might bring disaster upon them, sent Wei Shou Yu to feign defection to Qin, with the intent of manipulating Sui Hui and coaxing him to return to Jin. This deception worked, and Sui Hui returned to Jin. Duke Kang ruled for 20 years before passing away, with his son Duke Gong succeeding him.
Year 2 of Duke Gong (607 BCE): Zhao Chuan of Jin killed his ruler, Duke Ling of Jin.
Year 3 (606 BCE): King Zhuang of Chu, now powerful, marched northward and reached Luoyi, where he inquired about the Nine Tripod Cauldrons of the Zhou Dynasty, seeking to usurp the Zhou court’s authority. Duke Gong ruled for five years before passing away, with his son Duke Huan succeeding him.
Year 3 of Duke Huan (601 BCE): The Jin army defeated the Qin army, capturing the Qin general Chi.
Year 10 (594 BCE): King Zhuang of Chu conquered Zheng and then defeated the Jin army on the banks of the Yellow River. At this point, Chu became the hegemon and summoned the other feudal lords to an alliance conference.
Year 24 (580 BCE): Duke Li of Jin ascended the throne, and he signed a treaty with King Huan of Qin, agreeing to set the Yellow River as the boundary between the two states. After returning to Qin, however, King Huan broke the treaty and conspired with the Di people to attack Jin.
Year 26 (578 BCE): Jin led an alliance of feudal lords to attack Qin, decisively defeating the Qin forces. The Jin army pursued the retreating Qin troops all the way to the Jing River before turning back. King Huan ruled for 27 years before passing away, and his son Duke Jing succeeded him.
Year 4 of Duke Jing (573 BCE): Luán Shū, a minister of Jin, killed his ruler Duke Li of Jin.
Year 15 (562 BCE): The Qin army came to the aid of Zheng, defeating the Jin forces at Lìyi. This period also marked Duke Dao of Jin’s rise to prominence as the hegemon.
Year 18 (559 BCE): Duke Dao of Jin became stronger and repeatedly summoned the feudal lords to convene an alliance. He led an attack on Qin, defeating the Qin army. The Jin forces pursued the retreating Qin army all the way across the Jing River and to Shulin before turning back.
Year 27 (550 BCE): Duke Jing of Qin went to Jin and signed a treaty with Duke Ping of Jin, only to break the agreement shortly thereafter.
Year 36 (541 BCE): Prince Wei of Chu killed his ruler and self-declared himself king, taking the title of King Ling of Chu. In the same period, Duke Jing of Qin’s half-brother, Hou Zi Zhen, became favored by the ruler and amassed great wealth. Fearing accusations and possible death, he fled to Jin, bringing with him over a thousand chariots. Duke Ping of Jin, surprised, asked him, “Why, with such great wealth, do you still flee?” Hou Zi Zhen replied, “The ruler of Qin is tyrannical, and I fear for my life. I intend to return after his successor ascends the throne.”
Year 39 (538 BCE): King Ling of Chu, now powerful, summoned the lords to an alliance at Shen and established himself as the hegemon. He also killed the ruler of Qi, King Qingfeng.
Year 40 of Duke Jing (537 BCE): Duke Jing passed away after ruling for 40 years. His son Duke Ai succeeded him. However, Duke Ai’s son, who was named Prince Yi, died early and could not inherit the throne. Instead, Prince Yi’s son ascended the throne as Duke Hui.
Year 1 of Duke Hui (500 BCE): Confucius served as the acting Prime Minister of the state of Lu.
Year 5 (496 BCE): The influential Jin families, including the Zhonghang and Fan families, rebelled against Jin. In response, Duke Hui sent Zhi Shi and Zhao Jianzi to subdue them. The rebel families, Zhonghang and Fan, fled to the state of Qi.
Duke Hui ruled for 10 years before passing away, with his son Duke Dao succeeding him.
Year 2 of Duke Dao (489 BCE): The minister Tian Qi of Qi killed his ruler, Duke Ruzi, and installed his brother, Yangsheng, as the new ruler. Thus, Duke Dao of Qi ascended the throne.
Year 6 (485 BCE): The Wu army defeated the Qi forces. In response, the people of Qi killed Duke Dao and made his son, Duke Jian, their ruler.
Year 9 (482 BCE): Duke Ding of Jin and King Fuchai of Wu met at Huangchi to contest for the title of hegemon. Ultimately, King Fuchai claimed the position. As Wu grew stronger, they began to oppress the states of the Central Plains.
Year 12 (479 BCE): Tian Chang of Qi killed Duke Jian and installed his younger brother, Duke Ping, as the ruler. Tian Chang also became the prime minister.
Year 13 (478 BCE): The state of Chu annihilated the state of Chen. Duke Dao of Qin passed away after ruling for 14 years, and his son, Duke Li Gong, succeeded him. Confucius died in the 12th year of Duke Dao’s reign.
Year 2 of Duke Li Gong (475 BCE): The people of Shu came to present tribute to Qin.
Year 16 (461 BCE): Qin excavated ditches along the Yellow River and sent 20,000 troops to attack the state of Dali. They captured the city of Dali, seizing its royal capital.
Year 21 (456 BCE): Qin established Pingyang County.
Year 24 (453 BCE): Internal strife erupted in Jin, with Zhi Bo being killed. His lands were divided among the Zhao, Han, and Wei families.
Year 25 (452 BCE): Zhi Kai, a member of the Zhi family, led his people to defect to Qin.
Year 33 (444 BCE): Qin launched an attack on the Yiqu Rong tribe, capturing their king.
Year 34 (443 BCE): A solar eclipse occurred. Duke Li Gong passed away, and his son Duke Zao succeeded him.
Year 2 of Duke Zao (441 BCE): The city of Nanzheng revolted.
Year 13 (430 BCE): The Yiqu people attacked Qin, advancing to Weinan.
Year 14 (429 BCE): Duke Zao passed away, and his younger brother, Duke Huai, succeeded him.
Year 4 of Duke Huai (425 BCE): The chief minister, Chao He, and other ministers besieged Duke Huai. The duke committed suicide. Duke Huai’s son, Prince Zhaozi, had died young, so the ministers installed his grandson as ruler. This new ruler was Duke Ling.
Year 6 of Duke Ling (419 BCE): Jin built a city at Shaoliang, and Qin forces attacked Jin.
Year 13 (412 BCE): Qin constructed a city at Jigu. Duke Ling passed away, and his son, Duke Xian, did not succeed him. Instead, his uncle, Prince Daozi, ascended the throne as Duke Jian.
Year 6 of Duke Jian (409 BCE): Officially, government officers began to carry swords. Ditches were dug along the Luo River, and a city was constructed at Chongquan.
Year 16 (399 BCE): Duke Jian passed away, and his son, Duke Hui, succeeded him.
Year 12 of Duke Hui (388 BCE): Duke Hui’s son, Prince Chuzi, was born.
Year 13 (387 BCE): Qin attacked the state of Shu, capturing Nanzheng.
Year 16 (385 BCE): Duke Hui passed away, and Prince Chuzi succeeded him.
Year 2 of Duke Chuzi (385 BCE): The chief minister and others turned to the west, welcoming Duke Xian’s son, Duke Xian Gong, back to the country and installed him as ruler. They killed Prince Chuzi and his mother, casting their bodies into a deep abyss. Prior to this, Qin had experienced frequent changes in leadership, leading to a lack of stability and poor relations between the rulers and ministers. As a result, Jin grew stronger and took back the land that Qin had held west of the river.
Year 1 of Duke Xian Gong (384 BCE): The practice of human sacrifice was abolished.
Year 2 (383 BCE): A new city was built at Liyang.
Year 4 (381 BCE): On the day of the Gengyin in the first month, Duke Xian Gong’s son, Duke Xiao Gong, was born.
Year 11 (374 BCE): The Grand Historian of Zhou, Yan (pronounced “Dan”), visited Duke Xian Gong and remarked, “Originally, Zhou and Qin were united. After 500 years of separation, they reunited. After 17 years of reunion, one will rise among them to dominate the world.”
Year 16 (369 BCE): Peach trees bloomed in winter.
Year 18 (367 BCE): A rain of gold fell over Liyang.
Year 21 (364 BCE): Qin fought a battle with Wei at Shimen and killed 60,000 of their soldiers. The Son of Heaven sent embroidered robes as a congratulatory gift.
Year 23 (362 BCE): Qin fought Wei again at Shaoliang, capturing the Wei general, Gongsun Cuo.
Year 24 (361 BCE): Duke Xian Gong passed away, and his son, Duke Xiao Gong, ascended the throne at the age of 21.
Year 1 of Duke Xiao Gong (361 BCE): To the east of the Yellow River and Mount Shao, there were six strong states: Qi, Wu, Chu, Wei, Yan, and Zhao. In the middle of the Huai and Si rivers, there were more than a dozen smaller states. Chu, Wei, and Qin bordered one another. The Wei state built a long wall from Zhengxian, following the Luo River northward, establishing control over Shangjun. Chu controlled the land south of Hanzhong, including Ba and Qianzhong. The Zhou royal family had weakened, and the feudal lords often waged war against one another, conquering and absorbing other states. Qin, located in the remote Yongzhou, did not participate in the feudal lords’ alliance meetings, and was treated by the other states as if it were a barbarian tribe.
Duke Xiao Gong, in response, extended kindness and benevolence to his people, aided the widows and orphans, recruited warriors, and introduced clear laws regarding merit and reward. He issued a decree throughout the kingdom saying: “In the past, Duke Mu ruled between Qishan and Yongyi, implementing virtuous policies and strengthening our military. He pacified the turmoil in the east and expanded our territory to the banks of the Yellow River. To the west, he became the hegemon over the Rongdi tribes and extended our dominion over a thousand miles. The Son of Heaven awarded him the title of hegemon. All the feudal lords came to congratulate him, and he established a glorious legacy for future generations. But under the reigns of Duke Li, Duke Zao, Duke Jian, and Prince Chuzi, the state was unstable, and the nation suffered from internal strife. We were unable to focus on foreign affairs, and as a result, the state of Jin seized our western lands. The feudal lords have no respect for Qin, and this is the greatest humiliation. Upon my ascension, I have stabilized our borders, moved the capital to Liyang, and am now determined to march eastward to recover the land of our forebears. I intend to reinstate the policies of Duke Mu and fulfill the wishes of my predecessors.”
With this resolve, he ordered his forces to march east and laid siege to Shan City, while simultaneously attacking the Rong tribe in the west and killing their king.
Wei Yang heard of the decree and immediately traveled west to the state of Qin. He sought an audience with Duke Xiao of Qin through the intermediary, Jing Jian.
Year 2 (360 BCE): The Son of Heaven from the Zhou Dynasty sent sacrificial meat as tribute to Qin.
Year 3 (359 BCE): Wei Yang persuaded Duke Xiao to implement legal reforms, establishing a system of punishments, focusing on agricultural development domestically, and encouraging military service, rewarding those who excelled in battle. Duke Xiao found this approach to be highly beneficial. However, officials such as Gan Long and Du Zhi disagreed, leading to an intense debate. Eventually, Duke Xiao adopted Wei Yang’s new laws, though the people initially complained. Over time, after three years, the people began to adapt to the changes. Subsequently, Duke Xiao appointed Wei Yang as the Left Minister. This event is recorded in the Biographies of the Legalists.
Year 7 (355 BCE): Duke Xiao met with King Hui of Wei at Du Ping for an alliance.
Year 8 (354 BCE): Qin and Wei clashed at Yuanli, with Qin emerging victorious.
Year 10 (352 BCE): Wei Yang was appointed as the Grand Minister of Works, leading an army to besiege Wei’s capital, Anyi, ultimately bringing the city under Qin’s control.
Year 12 (350 BCE): Construction of Xianyang City commenced, and a gate was built for the promulgation of laws. Qin officially relocated its capital to Xianyang. Wei Yang restructured the administrative divisions, consolidating smaller towns into large counties, each overseen by a county magistrate. A total of 41 counties were established. Farmland was opened up, and the old system of land divisions under the well-field system was abolished. By this time, Qin’s territory had expanded eastward beyond the Luo River.
Year 14 (348 BCE): A new tax system was introduced.
Year 19 (343 BCE): The Son of Heaven bestowed upon Duke Xiao the title of hegemon.
Year 20 (342 BCE): The feudal lords came to offer congratulations. Qin sent the prince, Shao Guan, to lead the army to the meeting at Fengze, where they paid homage to the Son of Heaven.
Year 21 (341 BCE): The state of Qi defeated Wei at the Battle of Maling.
Year 22 (340 BCE): Wei Yang led a campaign against Wei, capturing the Wei prince, Ang. In recognition of his service, Duke Xiao bestowed upon Wei Yang the title of marquis and the honorific title of Shang Jun (Lord Shang).
Year 24 (338 BCE): Qin clashed with Wei forces at Anmen, capturing the Wei general, Wei Cuo.
Upon the death of Duke Xiao, his son, Duke Hui Wen, ascended the throne. In the same year, Wei Yang was executed. When Wei Yang first implemented the new laws, they were met with resistance, especially from the crown prince, who violated the law. Wei Yang remarked, “The failure of the laws stems from the royal family itself. If the king truly wishes to enforce these reforms, he must begin with his son. If the crown prince cannot accept the punishment, his teacher should bear it in his stead.” From then on, the laws were successfully enforced, and the state of Qin was well-governed. However, upon Duke Xiao’s death, as the crown prince ascended to the throne, the royal family, resentful of Wei Yang, accused him of treason. Wei Yang fled, but was ultimately captured, tried for rebellion, and executed by the cruel punishment of being torn apart by five horses in the capital, a public spectacle.
Year 1 of Duke Hui Wen (337 BCE): The states of Chu, Han, Zhao, and Shu sent envoys to pay their respects to Qin.
Year 2 (336 BCE): The Son of Heaven visited Qin to offer his congratulations.
Year 3 (335 BCE): At the age of 20, Duke Hui Wen underwent the guan li ceremony, marking his coming of age.
Year 4 (334 BCE): The Son of Heaven sent sacrificial meat for the worship of King Wen and King Wu of Zhou. The states of Qi and Wei declared themselves kings.
Year 5 (333 BCE): Yin Jin of Jin was appointed Grand Minister of Works.
Year 6 (332 BCE): Wei handed over Yin Jin to Qin, and he was renamed Ning Qin.
Year 7 (331 BCE): Prince Ang of Qin fought a battle with Wei, capturing the Wei general, Long Jia, and killing 80,000 soldiers.
Year 8 (330 BCE): Wei ceded the land west of the Yellow River to Qin.
Year 9 (329 BCE): Qin forces crossed the Yellow River and captured the cities of Fenyin and Pishi. Duke Hui Wen met with King Hui of Wei at Yingyi for an alliance. Qin’s forces besieged Jiaocheng, forcing its surrender.
Year 10 (328 BCE): Zhang Yi became the prime minister of Qin. Wei ceded the fifteen counties of Shangjun to Qin.
Year 11 (327 BCE): A county was established in Yiqu, and the cities of Jiaocheng and Quwo were returned to Wei. The ruler of Yiqu acknowledged Qin’s suzerainty. The city of Shaoliang was renamed to Xiayang.
Year 12 (326 BCE): Qin adopted the practice of holding the December sacrificial ceremonies, modeled after the traditions of the central states.
Year 13 (325 BCE): On the day of Wu Wu in April, the rulers of Wei and Han declared themselves kings—Wei as King Xiang of Wei and Han as King Xuanhui of Han. Qin sent Zhang Yi to capture Shan County and expel its inhabitants, handing them over to Wei.
Year 14 (324 BCE): The calendar was changed to the reign year Houyuan.
Year 2 (323 BCE): Zhang Yi, along with ministers from Qi and Chu, convened at Nie Sang for a diplomatic alliance.
Year 3 (322 BCE): The crown princes of Han and Wei arrived in Qin to pay their respects. Zhang Yi was appointed the Chancellor of Wei.
Year 5 (320 BCE): King Huiwen of Qin embarked on a tour to the North River.
Year 7 (318 BCE): Le Chi was appointed the Prime Minister of Qin. A coalition of Han, Zhao, Wei, Yan, and Qi joined forces with the Xiongnu to attack Qin. Qin sent the Left Minister Ji to engage them at Xiu Yu. Qin’s forces captured Han General Shen Chai, defeated Zhao’s Prince Ke, and Han’s Crown Prince Huan, killing 82,000 men in the process.
Year 8 (317 BCE): Zhang Yi was reinstated as Qin’s Prime Minister.
Year 9 (316 BCE): General Sima Cuo led a campaign against Shu, annihilating the Shu state. He also captured the central capitals of Zhao, Zhongdu, and Xiyang.
Year 10 (315 BCE): Han’s Crown Prince Cang was sent as a hostage to Qin. Qin captured the Han city of Shizhang, defeated Zhao’s general Ni, and took 25 cities from the Yiqu people.
Year 11 (314 BCE): Qin General Chuli Ji attacked Wei’s Jiaocheng, forcing its surrender. Qin also defeated Han forces at Anmen, killing 10,000 men, and Han General Xi Shou fled. Prince Tong of Qin was granted the title of Marquis of Shu. The Yan army ceded the throne to their minister, Zi Zhi.
Year 12 (313 BCE): King Hui Wen of Qin met with King Liang in Linjin for an alliance. Left Minister Ji attacked Zhao, capturing General Zhuang. Zhang Yi became the Prime Minister of Chu.
Year 13 (312 BCE): Left Minister Zhang launched an attack against the Chu army at Danyang, capturing General Qu Gai and killing 80,000 men. He also seized Hanzhong, expanding Qin’s territory by 600 miles and establishing Hanzhong Prefecture. The Chu army besieged the city of Yong in the Zhao state. Qin sent Left Minister Ji to assist Han in attacking Qi, while also sending forces to help Wei in its war against Yan.
Year 14 (311 BCE): Qin attacked Chu, capturing Zhaoling. The states of Dan and Li, along with the Rong tribes, acknowledged Qin’s supremacy. Shu Prime Minister Chen Zhuang killed the Marquis of Shu before surrendering to Qin.
Upon King Hui Wen’s death, his son, King Wu, ascended to the throne. At this point, the states of Han, Wei, Qi, Chu, and Zhao all acknowledged Qin’s supremacy.
Year 1 of King Wu (310 BCE): King Wu met with King Hui of Wei in Linjin for an alliance and executed Shu Prime Minister Chen Zhuang. Zhang Yi and Wei Zhang left Qin for Wei. Qin forces attacked the Yiqu, Dan, and Li tribes.
Year 2 (309 BCE): Qin introduced the office of Prime Minister, appointing Chuli Ji and Gan Mao as the Left and Right Prime Ministers, respectively. Zhang Yi passed away in Wei.
Year 3 (308 BCE): King Wu of Qin met with King Xiang of Han outside Linjin for a diplomatic gathering. The Southern Duke Jie passed away, and Chuli Ji became the Prime Minister of Han. King Wu of Qin, a robust man with a love for wrestling, appointed powerful figures like Ren Bi, Wu Huo, and Meng Yue to prominent positions. King Wu expressed a desire to carve a path, even one narrow enough for only a chariot to pass, to reach Luoyang and behold the Zhou royal capital, feeling that it would fulfill his aspirations even if it led to his death.
That autumn, he sent Gan Mao and Left Minister Feng to attack Yiyang.
Year 4 (307 BCE): Qin captured Yiyang, killing 60,000 men, and crossed the Yellow River to establish the city of Wusui. Wei’s crown prince came to pay respects. King Wu’s strength earned him the admiration of many, including the giant wrestlers who became his high officials.
In the same year, King Wu died, and Meng Yue was executed along with his entire family. King Wu had married a woman from Wei, but had no sons. Following his death, King Wu’s half-brother, King Zhaoxiang, ascended the throne. King Zhaoxiang’s mother, Lady Mi from Chu, became known as the Dowager Empress Xuan. At the time of King Wu’s death, King Zhaoxiang was a hostage in Yan. The people of Yan sent him back to Qin, enabling his ascension to the throne.
Year 1 of King Zhaoxiang (306 BCE): Yan Jun Ji was appointed Prime Minister. Gan Mao departed from Qin to join Wei.
Year 2 (305 BCE): A comet appeared. Left Minister Zhuang and other ministers, along with several vassal states, rebelled but were defeated and executed, with even Queen Huiwen meeting a tragic end. The Dowager Empress Daowu left Qin and returned to Wei.
Year 3 (304 BCE): King Zhaoxiang underwent the guan li coming-of-age ceremony and held an alliance meeting with King Chu at Huangji. Qin returned Shangyong to Chu.
Year 4 (303 BCE): Qin captured Pufan and encountered another comet.
Year 5 (302 BCE): King Wei of Wei visited Qin at Yingting. Qin returned Pufan to Wei.
Year 6 (301 BCE): Marquis of Shu, Hui, rebelled, but General Sima Cuo subdued the Shu state. Left Minister Huan attacked Chu, killing 20,000 men. The Duke of Jingyang was held hostage in Qi. A solar eclipse occurred that year, plunging the day into darkness.
Year 7 (300 BCE): Qin captured the new city of Xincheng. The ruler of the Rong tribes, Dan Li, died.
Year 8 (299 BCE): General Mi Rong led an attack against Chu and captured the city of Xinshi. The combined forces of Qi, Wei, and Han joined Qin in attacking the Chu city of Fangcheng, capturing the general Tang Mei. Zhao captured Zhongshan, causing its ruler to flee, dying later in Qi. Wei’s Prince Jin and Han’s Prince Chang were granted vassal titles.
Year 9 (298 BCE): Meng Changjun, Xue Wen, became Prime Minister of Qin. Left Minister Huan led another attack on Chu, capturing eight cities and killing Chu’s General Jing Kuai.
Year 10 (297 BCE): King Huai of Chu visited Qin but was detained. Xue Wen was dismissed from his position after speaking ill of King Zhaoxiang in front of the monarch. Lou Huan was appointed Prime Minister in his place.
Year 11 (296 BCE): The states of Qi, Han, Wei, Zhao, and Song, joined by Zhongshan, jointly attacked Qin. The forces retreated after reaching Yanshi. Qin ceded land along the northern banks of the Yellow River to Han and Wei and agreed to peace with both states. A comet appeared that year.
King Huai of Chu escaped to Zhao, but Zhao refused to harbor him and sent him back to Qin, where he died. Qin returned his body to Chu for burial.
Year 12 (295 BCE): Lou Huan was dismissed, and Wei Ran of Rang was appointed Prime Minister. Qin sent 50,000 bushels of grain to Chu as tribute.
In the thirteenth year (294 BCE), Xiang Shou launched an attack on the State of Han and captured Wushi. Left General Bai Qi attacked Xincheng. Five high-ranking ministers, including Lü Li, fled to the State of Wei. Ren Bi was appointed as the Governor of Hanzhong.
In the fourteenth year (293 BCE), Left General Bai Qi attacked the State of Han and Wei at Yique, killing 240,000 and capturing Gong Sunxi. He also conquered five cities.
In the fifteenth year (292 BCE), Grand Chancellor Bai Qi attacked the State of Wei, capturing Yuancheng before returning it to Wei. He then launched an assault on the State of Chu and captured Wancheng.
In the sixteenth year (291 BCE), Left General Bai Qi captured Zhicheng and Dengcheng. Wei Ran was removed from the position of Chancellor. Princes Fú (pronounced Fú) and Kuī (pronounced Kuī) were bestowed lands in Wàn and Dèng respectively, and Wei Ran was granted land in Tao, with all of them becoming feudal lords.
In the seventeenth year (290 BCE), Lord Chengyang came to pay homage, followed by the Kingdom of Dong Zhou. The State of Qin renamed Yuancheng to Puban and Pishi. The King of Qin arrived at Yiyang.
In the eighteenth year (289 BCE), Left General Bai Qi attacked Yuancheng and Heyong, severing bridges to capture both locations.
In the nineteenth year (288 BCE), King Zhao of Qin declared himself the Western Emperor, while King Min of Qi declared himself the Eastern Emperor. However, both abandoned their imperial titles shortly thereafter. Lü Li returned and surrendered. The State of Qi captured the State of Song, causing King Song to flee to Wei, where he died in Wendai. Ren Bi passed away.
In the twentieth year (287 BCE), the King of Qin traveled to Hanzhong, then proceeded to Shangjun and Beihe.
In the twenty-first year (286 BCE), Left General Bai Qi attacked Wei’s Henan. Wei surrendered Anyi. Qin drove out the Wei residents and recruited Qin citizens to settle in Hedong, granting them noble titles, while pardoning convicts and relocating them to the region. Lord Jingyang was granted land in Wàn.
In the twenty-second year (285 BCE), Meng Wu attacked the State of Qi and established nine counties in Hedong. The King of Qin met with the King of Chu at Wancheng and with the King of Zhao at Zhongyang.
In the twenty-third year (284 BCE), General Si Li, alongside the States of Han, Zhao, Wei, and Yan, attacked Qi and defeated its army on the western banks of the Jishui River. The King of Qin met with the King of Wei at Yiyang and with the King of Han at Xincheng.
In the twenty-fourth year (283 BCE), the King of Qin met with the King of Chu at Yancheng and again at Rangcheng. The State of Qin captured Wei’s Ancheng and marched toward the capital of Daliang. Yan and Zhao came to Wei’s aid, prompting Qin to retreat. Wei Ran was again removed from the position of Chancellor.
In the twenty-fifth year (282 BCE), Qin captured two cities of the State of Zhao. The King of Qin met with the King of Han at Xincheng and with the King of Wei at Ximingyi.
In the twenty-sixth year (281 BCE), criminals were pardoned and relocated to Rangcheng. Lord Wei Ran was reinstated as Chancellor.
In the twenty-seventh year (280 BCE), Left General Bai Qi attacked the State of Chu, pardoning criminals and relocating them to Nanyang. Bai Qi then attacked the State of Zhao, capturing the city of Guanglang in the region of Dai. General Sima Cuo, leading forces from Longxi through Shu, attacked the State of Chu’s Qianzhong region and captured it.
In the twenty-eighth year (279 BCE), Grand Chancellor Bai Qi again attacked the State of Chu, capturing Yancheng and Dengcheng, pardoning criminals and relocating them there.
In the twenty-ninth year (278 BCE), Grand Chancellor Bai Qi attacked Chu, capturing Yingdu and renaming it Nanjun, causing the King of Chu to flee. The Lord of Zhou came to Qin. The King of Qin met with the King of Chu at Xiangling. Bai Qi was named Lord of Wu’an.
In the thirtieth year (277 BCE), General Zhang Ruo of Shu attacked Chu, capturing Wujun and Jiangnan, and establishing Qianzhongjun.
In the thirty-first year (276 BCE), Bai Qi attacked the State of Wei, capturing two cities. People in the State of Chu revolted against Qin in Jiangnan.
In the thirty-second year (275 BCE), Chancellor Lord Rang attacked Wei and marched all the way to Daliang, defeating Bao Yuan, killing 40,000, and forcing Bao Yuan to flee. Wei offered three counties to Qin as a gesture of peace.
In the thirty-third year (274 BCE), Minister Hu Yang attacked Wei’s cities of Juan, Caiyang, and Changshe, conquering them. At Huayang, he defeated Mangmao and killed 150,000. Wei sent Nanyang to Qin in hopes of negotiating peace.
In the thirty-fourth year (273 BCE), Qin ceded Shangyong to the States of Han and Wei, establishing a new county and relocating pardoned citizens from Nanyang there.
In the thirty-fifth year (272 BCE), Qin helped the States of Han, Wei, and Chu attack Yan, while beginning to establish Nanyangjun.
In the thirty-sixth year (271 BCE), Minister Zao attacked the State of Qi, capturing Gang and Shou and gifting them to Lord Rang.
In the thirty-eighth year (269 BCE), Minister Hu Yang attacked Zhao’s city of Yan, but was unsuccessful.
In the fortieth year (267 BCE), Crown Prince Dao died in Wei and was transported back to Qin for burial in Zhiyang.
In the forty-first year (266 BCE), in the summer, the State of Qin attacked Wei, capturing Xinqiu and Huai.
In the forty-second year (265 BCE), Prince Anguo was declared heir. In October, Empress Xuan passed away and was buried in Zhiyang Li Mountain. In September, Lord Rang left the capital for the region of Tao.
In the forty-third year (264 BCE), Lord Wu’an Bai Qi attacked the State of Han, capturing nine cities and killing 50,000 people.
In the forty-fourth year (263 BCE), Bai Qi attacked Nanyang in Han, conquering it.
In the forty-fifth year (262 BCE), Five Ministers, including Ben, attacked Han and captured ten cities. The Lord of Yeyang, Kui, left the capital for his feudal domain but passed away en route.
In the forty-seventh year (260 BCE), the State of Qin attacked the Upper Party of Han, but it surrendered to Zhao, prompting Qin to attack Zhao. The two states fought to a standstill, and Qin sent General Bai Qi to attack Zhao, decisively defeating their forces at Changping. Over 400,000 prisoners were buried alive.
In the forty-eighth year (259 BCE), in October, Han presented Yuan Yong to Qin. The Qin army divided into three parts: Bai Qi returned to the capital; Wang He led an assault on Zhao’s Pilao, capturing it; and Sima Geng moved north to pacify Taiyuan, capturing Upper Party in Han. In January, the army ceased fighting and garrisoned in Upper Party. In October, Five Ministers led an assault on the city of Handan in Zhao.
In the forty-ninth year (258 BCE), in January, forces were bolstered to support Five Ministers, though the campaign was unsuccessful, and Wang He replaced him. In October, General Zhang Tang attacked Wei, and Cai Wei lost his defense, resulting in his execution upon return.
In the fiftieth year (257 BCE), in October, Lord Wu’an Bai Qi was stripped of his rank due to an offense, demoted to a common soldier, and exiled to Yinmi. Zhang Tang attacked Zheng, claiming victory. In December, reinforcements were dispatched to garrison near Fencheng. Bai Qi took his own life in disgrace. Wang He attacked Handan, but failed to capture it and withdrew. After two months, he launched a successful campaign against the Wei army, killing 6,000. Over 20,000 Wei and Chu soldiers drowned in the Yellow River. The army then attacked Fencheng before joining Zhang Tang in capturing Ningxinzhong, renaming it Anyang, and commencing the construction of Pubijin Bridge.
In the fifty-first year (256 BCE), General Jiū launched an assault on the Kingdom of Han, capturing Yangcheng and Fushu, resulting in the deaths of 40,000 people. He then attacked the Kingdom of Zhao, conquering over twenty counties and taking 90,000 heads as trophies. The Duke of Western Zhou, Wu Gong, betrayed the Qin, forming an alliance with various feudal lords to lead an elite force against Qin from Yique, cutting off the supply route between Qin and Yangcheng. In response, the Qin sent General Jiū to attack Western Zhou. The Duke of Western Zhou fled to Qin, surrendered, and begged for mercy, offering all his thirty-six cities and a population of thirty thousand as restitution. The Qin King accepted his offering and allowed him to return to Western Zhou.
In the fifty-second year (255 BCE), people from the Zhou region fled eastward, and the Nine Tripods, the sacred heirlooms of the Zhou dynasty, were moved to Qin. From this point, the Zhou dynasty effectively ceased to exist.
In the fifty-third year (254 BCE), all the states submitted to Qin, with Wei being the last to do so. The Qin sent General Jiū to conquer Wei, capturing Wucheng. The King of Han came to pay homage, and the King of Wei entrusted his kingdom to Qin.
In the fifty-fourth year (253 BCE), the Qin King conducted a sacrificial rite to the supreme deity in the southern suburbs of Yongcheng.
In the fifty-sixth year (251 BCE), King Zhao Xiang passed away, and his son, King Xiao Wen, ascended the throne. The late King’s mother, Lady Tang, was posthumously honored as the Grand Empress Dowager, and both she and King Zhao Xiang were buried together.
In the first year of King Xiao Wen’s reign (250 BCE), a general amnesty was declared. The king honored the meritorious officials of his father’s reign, showed favor to his royal relatives, and dismantled the royal garden.
The second year (249 BCE) marked another general amnesty, with King Xiao Wen further promoting his ancestors’ achievements, providing benefits to his family, and showering kindness on the people. Meanwhile, the Duke of Eastern Zhou and other lords secretly conspired to rebel against Qin, prompting King Qin Xiang to send Chancellor Lü Buwei to quell the uprising, annexing all of Eastern Zhou’s lands. Despite the annexation, the Qin maintained the Zhou’s ancestral rites, granting the Duke of Zhou the land around Yangren to continue these ceremonies.
In the second year of King Xiao Wen’s reign (248 BCE), Qin sent General Meng Ao to attack the Kingdom of Han, which surrendered Chenggao and Gongxian to Qin. Qin’s borders expanded to Daliang, and the Three Rivers commandery was established. In the third year (247 BCE), Meng Ao was again sent to attack Zhao, pacifying Taiyuan.
In the fourth year (246 BCE), Meng Ao attacked Wei, capturing Gaodu and Jixian. He then advanced into Zhao, conquering thirty-seven cities, including Yuci, Xincheng, and Langmeng. During this time, a solar eclipse occurred. General Wang He also attacked Shangdang, establishing Taiyuan commandery. Wei’s general Wu Ji led the forces of five states to counterattack, forcing the Qin army to retreat south of the Yellow River. Although Meng Ao was initially defeated, he managed to break the siege and retreat.
In May of the same year (246 BCE), King Zhao Xiang died, and his son Ying Zheng ascended the throne, marking the beginning of the Qin Empire’s centralization under the first Emperor, Qin Shi Huang.
After twenty-six years of consolidating power, Qin Shi Huang unified the realm, establishing thirty-six commanderies and formally adopting the title of “First Emperor” (Shi Huang Di). He ruled until the age of fifty-one, passing away in 210 BCE, succeeded by his son Hu Hai, who became the second Emperor.
In the third year (207 BCE), rebellions erupted across the empire, and Zhao Gao, a high-ranking official, assassinated the second emperor and installed the weak Prince Ziying. After only a month of reign, Ziying was also murdered, leading to the fall of the Qin dynasty.
The historian Sima Qian recounts: “The ancestors of the Qin state bore the surname Ying. Their descendants were granted lands and took surnames based on their territories, such as Xu, Tan, Ju, Zhongli, Yun, Tuqiu, Jiang, Xiu, Bai Ming, Feilian, and finally, the surname Qin. The Qin state was named after its ancestor Zao, who was granted land in Zhaocheng, and thus the Qin surname was derived from Zhao.”