Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, also known as Emperor Wu of Han, was the son of Emperor Jing of Han, placed centrally among his siblings. His mother was Empress Dowager Wang. In the fourth year of Emperor Jing’s reign (153 BCE), he was granted the title of King of Jiaodong. In the seventh year (150 BCE), the crown prince, Liu Rong, was deposed and renamed King of Linjiang, while the King of Jiaodong was made the crown prince. When Emperor Jing passed away after a sixteen-year reign, the crown prince ascended the throne, becoming Emperor Wu.
Upon his ascension, Emperor Wu placed great emphasis on sacrifices to the spirits and gods.
In the first year of his reign (140 BCE), the Han dynasty had already been established for over sixty years, with peace prevailing across the land. Ministers at the court hoped that the Emperor would hold grand sacrificial ceremonies at Mount Tai and Mount Liangfu, as well as revise and confirm various systems and institutions. The Emperor, a proponent of Confucianism, invited wise and virtuous scholars through examinations. Figures like Zhao Wan and Wang Zang rose to high government positions due to their scholarly writings. They proposed that the Emperor establish a Ming Tang, a hall of enlightenment, in the southern part of the capital, as a place to convene with the feudal lords. Their drafts for a new system of imperial tours, sacrificial ceremonies, and the reorganization of calendars and official attire were not completed before Empress Dowager Dou, who held sway in the court, opposed the Confucian doctrines and favored Taoist teachings, such as those of the Yellow Emperor and Laozi. She secretly investigated Zhao Wan and Wang Zang for alleged corrupt practices. Both men committed suicide, and their reforms were abandoned.
Six years later, Empress Dowager Dou passed away. In the following year (134 BCE), the Emperor summoned learned scholars such as Gong Sunhong to his court.
A year later, Emperor Wu made his first visit to Yong County and performed a sacrificial ceremony at the Five Altars, which honored the Five Heavenly Emperors. He continued this tradition of offering sacrifices every three years. During this time, a local spirit was venerated in the Shanglin Garden at Tishi Temple. This spirit had once been a woman from Changling who had died in sorrow after her son passed away. Her spirit later manifested through her sister-in-law, Wan Ruo. People began offering sacrifices to the spirit, including Prince Pingyuan of Zhao during the Warring States period. His descendants rose to prominence due to their connection to this spirit. After Emperor Wu ascended the throne, he arranged for this spirit to be honored in the imperial palace, where people could hear her voice but not see her.
At the time, a Taoist practitioner named Li Shaojun also gained the Emperor’s respect by presenting himself as a master of alchemy, claiming to offer blessings, avoid famine, and bestow immortality. Li had been introduced to the court by the late Duke of Shenze, and he concealed his true age and background. He often claimed to be seventy years old and could command spirits, granting people eternal life. His fame spread as he traveled through various states, offering his services. Li had no wife or children, and people, hearing of his powers, sent him riches and gifts. This fueled his reputation as a mysterious and wealthy man. The more people believed in him, the more they competed to serve him.
Li Shaojun was known for his fascination with the mystical arts and his ability to use persuasive words. He once dined with Marquis Wu’an, where an elderly man in his nineties was present. Li spoke of places where he had hunted with the man’s grandfather when the elderly man was a child. The elderly man, astonished, recalled those same places, impressing everyone in attendance. Another time, when Li Shaojun was summoned by the Emperor, he identified an ancient bronze vessel, stating it was displayed at the residence of Duke Qi in the tenth year of Duke Huan’s reign. Upon inspection, it was confirmed to be an artifact from that time, further enhancing Li’s aura of mysticism and leading many to believe he was a centuries-old immortal.
Li Shaojun shared with the Emperor that by performing sacrifices to the kitchen god, spirits could be summoned. Once summoned, cinnabar could be refined into gold, which could then be fashioned into culinary utensils, which would, in turn, prolong life. A long life would allow one to meet the immortals of the legendary Penglai Island in the Eastern Sea, and after meeting them, one could conduct the ritual of “fengshan” to achieve eternal life, just as the Yellow Emperor did. He claimed that during his travels at sea, he encountered an immortal named An Qi Sheng, who offered him dates the size of melons. An Qi Sheng, a Taoist immortal, resided in the mountains of Penglai Island, and those who were in harmony with him could meet him, while others would not.
Inspired by these teachings, the Emperor began performing sacrifices to the kitchen god and sent Taoist practitioners to seek An Qi Sheng and other immortals from the Eastern Sea. He also began experimenting with alchemical processes to refine cinnabar into gold.
After some time, Li Shaojun passed away. The Emperor, believing that he had ascended to immortality rather than dying, ordered the officials of Huangchui County to study his mystical arts. However, attempts to find An Qi Sheng on Penglai Island were unsuccessful. Despite this, many charlatans from the coastal regions of Yan and Qi began imitating Li Shaojun, discussing immortality and the pursuit of the divine.
The people of Bo County, including Bo Miuji, petitioned the court regarding the sacrificial rites for the god Taiyi. He proposed: “Among the heavenly deities, the most esteemed is Taiyi, and his supporting gods are the Five Emperors, known as the Five Heavenly Emperors. In ancient times, the Emperor would conduct sacrifices to Taiyi during the spring and autumn seasons at the southeastern outskirts of the capital. The offerings included cattle, sheep, and pigs, and the ritual would last for seven days. The altar was built with eight open passages to allow for the movement of spirits and deities.” In response, the Emperor ordered the Grand Sacrificer to erect a temple dedicated to Taiyi at the southeastern outskirts of Chang’an, and the prescribed rituals were followed accordingly.
Later, another petition reached the court, suggesting that in ancient times, the Emperor would perform a sacrificial rite every three years, offering cattle, sheep, and pigs to the Three Unities: the gods of Heaven, Earth, and Taiyi. The Emperor approved this request, and the Grand Sacrificer was instructed to perform the rituals at the newly established altar to Taiyi, following the petitioner’s proposed methods. Subsequently, another petition was submitted, recommending that the Emperor also conduct sacrifices to the gods of various other deities, including Huangdi (the Yellow Emperor), the god of the underworld, the god of horses, and many others, using a variety of animals, including owls, bulls, and fish. The Emperor agreed, and the sacrificial rites were expanded to include these new deities.
After this, the Emperor’s royal gardens housed a white deer. In a bid to encourage auspicious omens from the heavens, the Emperor had coins minted from the skin of the white deer and also created silver and tin alloy white gold coins.
The following year, the Emperor visited Yong County for a sacrificial ceremony and hunted a unicorn, resembling a deer. An official remarked, “Your Majesty, you have conducted the ritual with great reverence, and the gods, in return, have granted you this unicorn, which we believe to be a qilin.” The creature was presented as an offering to the Five Emperors’ altars, with each altar receiving an additional bull as a sacrifice. A fire ritual was also performed to honor the heavens, and white gold coins were distributed to the feudal lords, signaling that this auspicious omen was in harmony with the will of the heavens and earth.
At this time, King Jibei believed that the Emperor was preparing to perform the grand fengshan ceremony and thus petitioned the Emperor to offer Tai Mountain and its surrounding cities. The Emperor accepted this and compensated King Jibei with other counties. King Changshan, who had committed an offense, was exiled, and his brother was granted the title of Marquis of Zhendeng to continue ancestral rites, while the kingdom of Changshan was reorganized into a commandery. As a result, all Five Sacred Mountains were now directly governed by the Emperor’s administrative divisions.
In the second year, a man named Shao Weng from Qi, a practitioner of spiritual arts, appeared before the Emperor. The Emperor’s beloved consort had passed away, and it was said that Shao Weng used his mystical arts to bring forth an apparition of her and the Kitchen God at night, which the Emperor observed through a curtain. Consequently, Shao Weng was appointed General of Civil Virtue and rewarded generously, treated as a distinguished guest. The General of Civil Virtue said, “If the Emperor wishes to commune with the gods, yet the palace, clothing, and utensils do not align with the divine, the gods will not descend.” Following this advice, he crafted chariots adorned with clouds, using different colored chariots on specific days to drive away evil spirits, in accordance with the Five Elements’ principles of balance. He also built the Ganquan Palace, where high platforms were constructed with depictions of gods such as Heaven, Earth, and Taiyi, and sacrificial vessels were arranged to attract the divine.
However, after more than a year, the mystical practices proved increasingly ineffective, and the gods did not manifest. The General of Civil Virtue then wrote some characters on a piece of silk, which was swallowed by a cow. He feigned ignorance and claimed that the cow had some strange substance inside it. When the cow was slaughtered, a piece of silk with strange writings was discovered. The Emperor became suspicious, and upon further investigation, it was revealed that Shao Weng had forged the message. The General was executed, and the matter was kept secret.
Subsequently, the Emperor constructed the Bai Liang Terrace, copper pillars, and the Chenglu Immortal Cactus, said to contain dew mixed with jade powder, which, when consumed regularly, could grant immortality.
The year after the death of the General of Civil Virtue, the Emperor fell gravely ill in the Dinghu Palace. Despite numerous attempts by doctors and shamans, his condition did not improve. One of the shaman priests suggested that there was a healer in the upper counties who could allow spirits to possess his body when he was ill. The Emperor summoned this shaman and placed him in Ganquan Palace. When the shaman fell ill, the Emperor sent people to inquire about the deity that possessed the shaman. The deity replied, “Do not worry about the Emperor’s illness; it will soon pass. He may come to meet me in Ganquan Palace.” The Emperor’s condition began to improve, and he visited the Ganquan Palace, where he fully recovered. In gratitude, he issued a general amnesty and housed the deity in the Shou Palace.
The highest-ranking of these deities was Taiyi, whose assistants included the gods of great restraint and fate. These deities accompanied him, and although their appearances could not be seen, their voices could be heard, indistinguishable from human speech. The deities came and went at will, and when they arrived, the sound of wind would accompany them. They resided within the palace’s curtains, speaking sometimes during the day but often at night. The Emperor first performed a purification ritual to remove calamities and seek blessings before entering the palace. The shaman was appointed as the overseer of the deities’ sustenance, and their words were conveyed through him. The Emperor had their words recorded, calling it the “Drawing Method,” a term signifying divine guidance. While the deities’ messages were not particularly profound or unique, the Emperor secretly delighted in them. These events were kept secret, known only to the Emperor and the spirits.
In the third year thereafter, the responsible officials proposed that the era should be named according to the auspicious signs sent by heaven, rather than following the sequence of years one and two. The first era of the founding of the nation could be named “Jian Yuan” (Establishment of the Era), the second era could be called “Yuan Guang” (Primordial Light), due to the appearance of a comet known as the “Chang Xing” (Long Star), and the third era, because of the obtaining of the unicorn during the autumn rites, could be named “Yuan Shou” (Primordial Harvest).
In the following winter, the emperor went to Yongcheng for the seasonal sacrifices and remarked, “I have personally performed the sacrificial rites to the supreme deity, but I have not yet made offerings to the earth goddess, Hou Tu. This is against the proper rituals.” The officials discussed with the Grand Historian Sima Tan and the temple officer Kuan Shu, and they advised, “To properly offer sacrifices to heaven and earth, you must use young sacrificial animals the size of cocoons or chestnuts. For the earth goddess, the offerings should be conducted on a circular mound in the Great Marsh, where five altars should be built, each with a yellow calf as the sacrificial offering. After the ritual, all should be buried, and the attendants should wear yellow clothing.”
Thus, the emperor set out eastward and, for the first time, established a temple to the earth goddess Hou Tu at Fen Yin Mound, following the advice of Kuan Shu and others. The emperor personally paid homage to the earth deity, using the same rituals as those for the heavenly deities. After completing the sacrifice, he passed through Xingyang on his way back to Chang’an. When passing through Luoyang, he issued an edict saying, “The dynasties of Xia, Shang, and Zhou are distant in time, and it is difficult to preserve many descendants. I will designate thirty miles of land and give it to the descendants of King Zhou, who will be appointed as the Lord of the South and be responsible for ancestral sacrifices.” That year, the emperor began inspecting various regions and gradually approached Mount Tai.
In the spring of that year, Marquis Lecheng presented the recommendation of Luan Da. Luan Da was a palace servant in the court of King Liu of Jiaodong, managing the daily affairs of the palace. He had previously studied under General Wen Cheng and later became the chief alchemist in the royal court. The elder sister of Marquis Lecheng was the queen of King Kang of Jiaodong, but they had no son. When King Kang died, the sons of his other concubines were made king. The queen, being involved in scandals, had conflicts with the new king, and they attempted various methods to harm each other. Upon hearing that General Wen Cheng had died, Queen Kang sought to win favor with the emperor and sent Luan Da to seek an audience with him to discuss the arts of alchemy. After the emperor had executed Wen Cheng, he regretted his early death and lamented that he had not allowed him to fully demonstrate his alchemical knowledge. When he met Luan Da, the emperor was delighted.
Luan Da was tall and handsome, with a strategic way of speaking, and he spoke boldly without hesitation. He boasted, “I have sailed the seas and met immortals like An Qisheng and Xianmen Gao. However, they did not trust me because of my low status, and they thought King Kang, being just a local lord, was unworthy of receiving the secrets of immortality. I often advised King Kang, but he ignored me. My teacher once said, ‘Gold can be refined, the Yellow River can be blocked, the elixir of immortality can be obtained, and immortals can be summoned.’ I fear that, like Wen Cheng, I too will face death and be silenced, and then no alchemist will dare speak again.” The emperor replied, “Wen Cheng merely died from eating horse liver. If you truly understand your teacher’s methods, why would I withhold anything from you?” Luan Da responded, “My teacher is not the one in need, but rather people come to him for help. If Your Majesty truly desires to summon immortals, you must treat the emissaries of immortals with great respect, provide them with families, treat them as honored guests, and give them seals to communicate with the immortals. Whether or not the immortals come depends on their will. In any case, only by elevating the emissaries of immortals can we have any hope of summoning them.”
The emperor asked Luan Da to demonstrate his alchemy by performing a simple technique. Luan Da performed a game of chess where the pieces clashed on the board, which was actually a trick using magnetic chess pieces and rods.
At that time, the emperor was worried about the breach of the Yellow River and had failed to refine gold. He appointed Luan Da as General of the Five Benefits. After a month, Luan Da was given four gold seals, carrying titles such as General of the Celestial Soldiers, General of the Earth Soldiers, Grand General of the Great Passage, and General of the Heavenly Way. The emperor issued an edict to the censors, saying, “In the past, Emperor Yu was able to dredge the Nine Rivers and open the Four Rivers. Recently, the flooding rivers have inundated the land, and the labor to build dikes is endless. I have ruled for twenty-eight years, and if heaven wishes to send an alchemist to me, it would be General of the Great Passage. The Book of Changes mentions the ‘Flying Dragon’ and the ‘Wild Goose,’ which I believe may be a compliment to our harmonious rule.” The emperor granted Luan Da a fief of two thousand households and a first-class residence with a thousand servants. The emperor also gave Luan Da a vast supply of horses, chariots, and tents. Luan Da’s new residence was filled with royal belongings, and the emperor gave him Princess Wei Chang in marriage, along with ten thousand pounds of gold. The emperor also renamed his city to “Princess Dangli’s City.”
The emperor personally visited General Luan Da’s estate, and messengers continuously brought gifts to him from people ranging from the emperor’s aunt, the Grand Princess, to ministers and generals. The emperor then carved a jade seal titled “General of the Heavenly Way” and sent a messenger wearing a garment made of bird feathers, carrying the seal at night while standing on a mat of white rushes. Luan Da, likewise dressed in bird-feathered attire, received the jade seal, signaling that the emperor did not view the recipient as a mere subject. Wearing the “Heavenly Way” seal was meant to guide the arrival of heavenly beings.
From then on, Luan Da held nightly rituals in his home, hoping to summon the immortals. However, no immortals came, but many spirits gathered. Despite this, Luan Da proved capable of commanding the spirits. Eventually, he prepared his belongings and journeyed eastward to the sea, reportedly seeking his teacher. Over the next few months, Luan Da, adorned with six great seals, gained a reputation that echoed throughout the lands. Alchemists from the coastal regions of Yan and Qi eagerly claimed to possess their own secret formulas to communicate with immortals.
This summer, in mid-June, a priest named Jin from Fenyin conducted a public ritual near the Houtu Shrine at Weizhu (a location). As he performed the rites, he noticed the ground rising in a curved hook shape. Digging further, he uncovered a cauldron unlike any he had seen before—it was adorned only with intricate patterns, lacking any inscriptions. The priest found this curious and reported the discovery to the local officials, who, in turn, informed the Governor of Hedong, Sheng. Sheng then forwarded the news to the imperial court.
The Emperor dispatched an envoy to examine the cauldron and investigate the details of its discovery, ensuring it was not a counterfeit. After confirming its authenticity, a ritual was held, and the cauldron was taken to the Ganyuan Palace. The Emperor accompanied the relic, intending to offer it to the Heavenly Emperor. Upon reaching Zhongshan, the weather was clear and warm, with yellow clouds gathering above. At that moment, a young stag ran past, and the Emperor personally shot it, offering it as a sacrificial gift.
Upon their arrival in Chang’an, officials began to discuss whether the sacred cauldron should be venerated. The Emperor responded, “Recently, the Yellow River has flooded, and for several years, the harvests have been poor. Thus, I traveled across the counties to offer sacrifices to Hou Tu, praying for her to bless the people’s crops. This year, the harvest has been bountiful, but I have not yet held a proper ceremony of thanksgiving to the Earth God. Now, with this cauldron’s appearance, what is its meaning?”
The senior officials explained, “It is said that the Great Emperor Taidi Taihao, the legendary Fuxi, created a divine cauldron to symbolize unity—everything in the world was unified under this cauldron. The Yellow Emperor crafted three sacred cauldrons to represent heaven, earth, and humanity. Emperor Yu of the Xia Dynasty gathered copper from the Nine Provinces to forge nine cauldrons, which were used in sacrifices to both gods and spirits. When a wise ruler arises, the cauldron reappears. The cauldron has been passed down through the Xia and Shang dynasties. It disappeared during the late Zhou period, when the moral decay of the state led to the destruction of the sacrificial altars.”
They continued, quoting the Book of Songs, “From the hall to the steps, back and forth, from sheep to ox, all are prepared; the great and small cauldrons have been examined. Not noisy, not arrogant, but respectful and humble, leading to health, longevity, and great fortune.”
The cauldron’s arrival at Ganyuan Palace was marked by its stunning brilliance and mysterious power, which was interpreted as a sign that the nation would receive boundless blessings. This matched the auspicious omens seen earlier: yellow clouds in Zhongshan and the appearance of the sacred stag. Additionally, the discovery of a large bow and four arrows at the altar reinforced the divine nature of these signs.
The Emperor issued an imperial edict, stating, “This cauldron must be presented to the ancestors and kept in the Heavenly Emperor’s palace. This is in accordance with the many auspicious omens.”
At that time, there were rumors of people attempting to reach the immortal Penglai Mountain, yet they could never quite reach it. The Emperor dispatched officials skilled in divination to help observe the clouds and determine the mountain’s location.
In the autumn, the Emperor traveled to Yong County to perform a sacrificial ceremony to the Five Emperors. Some suggested, “The Five Emperors are the assistants of the Taiyi God, so a shrine to Taiyi should be established, and the Emperor should personally conduct the ritual.” The Emperor hesitated. Gong Sunqing of Qi then suggested, “This year, the cauldron has appeared, and on the winter solstice, the day of the xinsi will be the first day of the new moon. This is the same time the Yellow Emperor received the cauldron.”
Gong Sunqing presented a wooden text claiming that the Yellow Emperor had obtained the cauldron in Wanqu County, where he consulted the ghostly district of Guiyu. The district confirmed that the appearance of the cauldron coincided with the jiyou day of the lunar cycle and the winter solstice, a sign in accordance with heavenly laws. The Yellow Emperor used the sun’s movements to calculate the calendar and, over the next 380 years, saw the cycle repeat itself approximately every 20 years, signaling the Emperor’s eventual ascension to immortality.
Gong Sunqing sought to bring this information to the Emperor through So Chong, who dismissed it as a spurious text. However, Gong Sunqing persisted and presented it through a trusted official. The Emperor was intrigued and summoned Gong Sunqing for a detailed inquiry.
Gong Sunqing explained that the manuscript was written by Sheng Gong, a man from Qi who had been taught by the Yellow Emperor. The book detailed how the Han Dynasty’s emperors would follow the same calendar as the Yellow Emperor, and when the cauldron appeared, it would bridge communication with the immortals. It further suggested that Han emperors should perform the fengshan rituals on Mount Tai to ascend to immortality, just as the Yellow Emperor had done. The Yellow Emperor, a powerful ruler, had eliminated those who opposed his studies of immortality and, after more than a century, finally communicated with the divine.
The Emperor, deeply moved, said, “If I could achieve what the Yellow Emperor did, leaving behind my family and ascending to the heavens, it would be as easy as shedding my shoes.” He then appointed Gong Sunqing as an official and ordered him to go east to Mount Taishan in anticipation of meeting the immortals.
Following this, the Emperor traveled to Yong County to conduct the rituals at the outskirts, before proceeding to Longxi, then westward to ascend Mount Kongtong, and finally returned to the Ganquan Palace. He instructed the officials to construct an altar for the Taiyi deity, following the design outlined by Bo Miu Ji, which consisted of three tiers. The altar for the Five Emperors was arranged surrounding the Taiyi altar, with each deity positioned according to their respective directions. The altar for the Yellow Emperor was located in the southwest, and eight pathways were established for the spirits to traverse. The offerings at the Taiyi altar mirrored those of the Five Altars of Yong County, with the addition of sweet wine, dates, dried meat, and the sacrifice of a male ox, which was used as the sacrificial offering. The Five Emperors’ altar, however, only received sacrifices of cattle, sheep, and sweet wine, without the inclusion of an ox.
Around the altar, in the areas designated for the attendant deities and the North Star, the sacrificial rituals were carried out. Once the ceremonies were completed, all the used offerings were burned. The sacrificed bull was white, and a deer was placed inside the bull’s belly, followed by a pig inside the deer’s belly, and then submerged in water. The ritual for the Sun deity involved a bull, and for the Moon deity, a sheep or pig, with only one animal used for each. The officiant for the Taiyi ritual wore purple embroidered robes, while the officiants for the Five Emperors’ rites donned ceremonial garments in colors corresponding to each emperor: red for the Sun, white for the Moon, and so on.
On the day of the Xin-Si new moon in November, which also marked the Winter Solstice, the Emperor began the sacrificial rites for the Taiyi deity just before dawn. In the morning, the Emperor made offerings to the Sun, and in the evening, to the Moon, both with hands clasped in respectful prayer. The rituals for Taiyi followed the customary rites observed at the outskirts of Yong County. The ceremonial words of invocation to encourage the gods to partake in the offerings were as follows: “Heaven has bestowed upon the Emperor the sacred treasures of the divine tripod and heavenly command, so that his reign may continue endlessly, month after month, year after year, forever eternal. The Emperor now humbly presents himself before the heavenly deities.”
The ritual attire was yellow, and the altar was surrounded by torches, with cooking utensils placed nearby. The officiating officials reported, “A light has appeared above the altar.” The ministers and officials commented, “Initially, at the outskirts of Yunyang Palace, during the Taiyi sacrificial rites, the officiant presented a large, six-inch jade disc and a fat, well-fed sacrificial beast to the deities. That night, a beautiful light appeared, and by morning, yellow clouds ascended, connecting with the heavens.” The Grand Historian and the officiant Kuanshu remarked, “The divine light that has manifested is an auspicious omen, signifying blessings and good fortune. We should build the Taiyi altar in the region illuminated by this divine radiance to further honor the heavenly deities. It is ordered that the Chief Priest oversee this matter, and that the rites be held every autumn and lunar December. Every three years, the Emperor should conduct the rites at the outskirts.”
That autumn, after the defeat of Nanyue, the Emperor performed a sacrificial offering to the Taiyi deity. He used the branches of the elder tree to create flagpoles, on which images of the Sun, Moon, North Star, and a dragon ascending into the sky were painted, symbolizing the Three Stars of Taiyi. Since Taiyi’s star was located at the back, the Three Stars of Taiyi were considered the vanguard flag of the Taiyi deity, named the “Spirit Flag.” During military rituals, the Grand Historian held the Spirit Flag and pointed it toward the direction of the defeated country. Meanwhile, General Wu Li, acting as an envoy, refrained from traveling to the sea in search of immortals and instead went to Mount Tai for a sacrificial offering. The Emperor secretly sent people to follow and investigate his movements, discovering that he had not seen anything extraordinary. Wu Li falsely claimed to have met his teacher, though his mystical practices had already run their course, and many of them failed to manifest. The Emperor, upon learning of this, ordered Wu Li’s execution.
That winter, Gongsun Qing, waiting for immortals in Henan, reported seeing footprints of an immortal on the city of Gou (Gou Shi), accompanied by a divine creature resembling a mountain chicken, which appeared intermittently in the city. The Emperor personally traveled to Gou Shi to examine the footprints. He questioned Gongsun Qing: “You are not trying to deceive me, like Wen Cheng and Wu Li, are you?” Gongsun Qing responded, “The immortals do not seek the Emperor’s favor; rather, the Emperor seeks theirs. If the time is not right, the immortals will not come. Seeking immortality may seem absurd, but over many years, the immortals may eventually respond.” Consequently, all regions and states began to repair roads, restore palaces, towers, and temples dedicated to the gods, in hopes of the Emperor’s arrival.
After the conquest of Nanyue, the Emperor’s favored courtier, Li Yannian, presented beautiful music to the Emperor. The Emperor found the music exquisite and called a meeting of the ministers, saying, “In the past, popular sacrifices included drums, dances, and music. However, during my sacrificial rites, no music has been played. How can this be appropriate?” The ministers responded, “In ancient times, sacrifices to the heavens and earth were accompanied by music, as this would attract the deities and spirits to partake in the offerings.” It was also said that the Tai Emperor once had the goddess Su Nv play a fifty-stringed zither. The sound was so sorrowful that the Tai Emperor stopped her, but she could not cease, so he had the zither cut down to twenty-five strings. Consequently, during the sacrifices for the subjugation of Nanyue, music and dance were incorporated, and the creation of a twenty-five-stringed zither and a konghou zither began.
The following winter, the Emperor proposed, “In ancient times, emperors first ceased warfare before conducting the grand sealing and worship ceremonies.” He then traveled north to inspect the Shuo Fang region with a large army. On his return, he stopped at the Yellow Emperor’s tomb on Mount Qiao to pay respects and dismissed his troops at Xu Ru. The Emperor inquired, “I have heard that the Yellow Emperor did not die, yet there is a tomb. How is this possible?” One of his attendants explained, “After the Yellow Emperor ascended to immortality, his ministers buried his clothes and hat here, which is why a tomb exists.” Upon his return to Ganquan Palace, the Emperor prepared to ascend Mount Tai for the grand sealing and worship ceremony.
Since obtaining the precious tripod, the Emperor began discussing the grand ceremony of fengshan (sacrificial offerings) with his ministers and scholars. Because this grand ceremony had been infrequently performed and had been lost to time, no one understood its exact rituals. The scholars proposed using the rituals recorded in the Shangshu (Book of Documents), Zhouguan (Rites of Zhou), and Wangzhi (Kingship system), particularly the sacrificial rites involving shooting at a cow and observing offerings. Ding Gong of Qi, who was over ninety years old, said, “The ‘feng’ ritual of sacrificing on Mount Tai should symbolize immortality. Emperor Qin Shi Huang was never able to perform the fengshanceremony on Mount Tai. Your Majesty, if you wish to ascend, you should persevere. Once you ascend higher, no wind or rain will stop you, and you will certainly succeed in performing the fengshan ritual.” The Emperor then ordered the scholars to practice shooting at cows and draft the ceremonial procedures for fengshan. After several years, preparations for the ceremony began.
The Emperor, listening to the advice of Gongsun Qing and the alchemists, learned that past emperors who performed fengshan were said to have summoned strange phenomena and communicated with immortals. He intended to follow the example of Emperor Huang Di in welcoming the immortal Penglai sages, to transcend the mundane, emulate the virtues of the Nine Emperors, and incorporate Confucian teachings to refine the ritual. However, the scholars, unable to fully grasp the specifics of the ceremony and constrained by the ancient texts such as Shi and Shu, dared not fully implement their theories. The Emperor presented the ceremonial vessels to the scholars, but some of them remarked, “This is different from ancient rites,” and Xu Yan commented, “The sacrificial ceremonies conducted by the Tai Chang (Great Sacrificial Officer) are not as refined as those of the ancient State of Lu.” At this point, Zhou Ba gathered the scholars to discuss the fengshan matters, but the Emperor dismissed Xu Yan and Zhou Ba, disbanding the scholars entirely.
In March, the Emperor traveled eastward to the county of Gaoshi, where he ascended Mount Taishan to perform sacrifices. His officials, hearing what seemed like the shouting of “long live,” inquired with those on the mountain, but they denied it. Similarly, those at the base of the mountain also denied hearing anything. As a result, the Emperor awarded 300 households on Mount Taishan for the purpose of sacrifices, naming the settlement Chonggao (Noble City). The Emperor then ascended Mount Tai, where the vegetation had not yet budded, and ordered for a stone tablet to be brought up and placed at the peak of the mountain.
Next, the Emperor continued his eastern journey across the sea, performing rituals to the eight deities: the Lord of Heaven, Earth, Military, Yin, Yang, the Sun, Moon, and the Four Seasons. The people of Qi submitted thousands of accounts of immortals, spirits, and strange esoteric practices, but none of them proved effective. The Emperor sent additional ships and ordered those who had spoken of the sea’s sacred mountains to go in search of the immortal beings of Penglai. Gongsun Qing, often holding official seals, was first to visit various mountains awaiting the immortals. In Donglai, he claimed to have seen a figure, several meters tall, but as he approached, it vanished. There were also reports of large footprints, resembling those of beasts. Some officials claimed to have seen an old man with a dog who said, “I wish to meet the Emperor,” only to disappear shortly after. The Emperor, skeptical of the large footprints, began to believe the old man was indeed an immortal after hearing the reports. Consequently, the Emperor stationed boats on the sea, providing chariots for the alchemists and secretly dispatched thousands of envoys to search for the immortals.
In April, the Emperor returned to Fenggao. He reflected on the differing opinions of the Confucian scholars and alchemists on the fengshan rites and the lack of ancient records, making it difficult to proceed. The Emperor traveled to Liangfu Mountain to perform sacrifices to the Earth God. On the day of Yi Mao, he commanded the official scholar to wear a white deerskin cap and official attire, while the Emperor himself shot a cow for the sacrifice. At the eastern foot of Mount Tai, he constructed an altar to offer sacrifices to Heaven, following the ceremonial procedures for the Tai Yi deity. The altar was 12 feet wide and 9 feet high. Beneath the altar were documents of the fengshan ritual, the contents of which were kept secret, known only to the Empress. After the ritual, the Emperor, accompanied by his chief charioteer and senior officials, ascended Mount Tai and performed another sacrificial ceremony to Heaven. All of these proceedings were strictly forbidden from being disclosed. The following day, they descended the northern path of the mountain. On Bingchen, at the northeastern foot of Mount Tai, they performed a land sacrifice in the manner of the rites for the Earth Goddess, Houtu. During these ceremonies, the Emperor personally offered prayers to the celestial and terrestrial deities, dressed in yellow ceremonial robes and accompanied by music. The sacrificial altars were adorned with sacred grass from the Jianghuai region, and five-colored clay representing the five directions was scattered over the altar. Rare and exotic animals, such as wild chickens with white feathers and strange flying creatures, were released, further enhancing the ceremonial atmosphere. However, no rare animals like rhinoceroses, elephants, or water buffalo were used. The Emperor and his entourage performed the rites and then departed.
On the night of the fengshan ceremony, a bright light appeared in the sky, and during the day, white clouds rose from the altar, signifying the Emperor’s successful offering to Heaven. Upon returning from the ceremony, the Emperor sat in the Hall of Ming and was greeted by his ministers who offered their congratulations for his long reign. The Emperor then issued a decree to the Censor: “I, a humble person, inherited the supreme throne of the Emperor and have acted with caution, fearing I may not be up to the task. My virtue is shallow, and I lack understanding of ritual and music. When I made offerings to Tai Yi, a divine light appeared in the sky, and my heart was uneasy. It seemed as though I witnessed a celestial vision, and I was deeply moved, unable to stop myself. Eventually, I ascended Mount Tai to build the altar and offer sacrifices to Heaven, and then to Liangfu Mountain, and finally to the sacred land of Sui Ran Mountain. I aim to improve myself and work with the scholars and officials to begin anew. To the people, I grant one cow and ten stones of wine for every hundred households, and additional gifts of cloth for the elderly over eighty, orphans, and widows. The taxes in Bo County, Fenggao, Sheqiu, and Licheng will be forgiven, and this year’s rents are waived, along with forced labor. I hereby grant a general amnesty to the land, similar to the one issued in the year of Yi Mao. No minor criminals in the areas I have visited will face further punishment. Crimes committed more than two years ago will no longer be pursued.” The Emperor also issued another decree: “In ancient times, emperors would travel every five years to offer sacrifices at Mount Tai. The feudal lords would come to pay homage and have residences built for them. I will ensure the feudal lords build their official residences at the foot of Mount Tai.”
After the Emperor had completed the sacrificial ritual on Mount Tai and faced no storms or calamities, the Taoist sages claimed that the sacred mountains, such as Penglai, were almost within reach. The Emperor, elated by this, thought that perhaps he would encounter them, so he traveled eastward to the coast, hoping to catch sight of the divine Penglai mountain. Suddenly, however, his charioteer, General Huo Zi, fell ill and passed away within a day. The Emperor then departed, traveling northward along the coastline, reaching Jieshi Mountain. From there, he continued his journey, traveling through the northern borders, eventually arriving at Jiuyuan County.
In May, he returned to the Palace of Ganquan. The chief official reported that the year when the Precious Cauldron first appeared was the “Yuanding” era, and this year, with the Emperor performing the sacrificial rites on Mount Tai, the era name should be “Yuanfeng.”
That autumn, a comet appeared in the Eastern Constellation of Jing, radiating brilliant light. After several days, it reappeared in the San Tai Constellation, once again shining brightly. A soothsayer named Wang Shuo reported, “When I observed the star, it appeared in the shape of a gourd and vanished soon after.” The chief official responded, “Your Majesty has established the Han dynasty’s sacred rituals on Mount Tai, and Heaven has likely sent this auspicious star to show its favor in return.”
The following winter, the Emperor performed a sacrifice to the Five Emperors in the outskirts of Yong County and later honored the Taiyi deity. The sacrificial prayer read: “The luminous star, symbolizing great fortune, shines brightly, heralding auspiciousness. The longevity star has appeared, illuminating the distant corners of the earth. The Star of Faith shines brightly to bless the Emperor, who worships the deities to receive immeasurable divine favor.”
In the spring, Gongsun Qing reported that he had encountered a celestial being on Mount Donglai. The being seemed to have said, “I wish to see the Emperor.” The Emperor then traveled to Goushi City and appointed Gongsun Qing as a high-ranking official. He then went to Donglai, stayed for several days, but saw nothing except large human footprints. The Emperor sent thousands of Taoist priests to search for the celestial being and collect immortality herbs. This year, there was a severe drought. The Emperor no longer had a formal reason for his inspection tours, so he went to the vast deserts praying for rain. On his way past Mount Tai, he conducted another sacrificial rite.
On his return journey, he stopped at the breach of the Yellow River at Huzi Kou, personally overseeing the effort to block the river’s breach. After two days of work, he sank a white horse into the river as an offering to the river god and then left. He sent two generals to lead soldiers to close the breach, dividing the river into two channels and restoring it to the state it had been in since the time of King Yu.
After the conquest of Nan Yue, a man named Yongzhi from Yue advised the Emperor, saying, “The people of Yue have a custom of worshipping spirits, and during their rituals, they are able to see spirits with great frequency. In the past, King Dong Ou, who revered the spirits, lived to be 160 years old. His descendants, however, became negligent in their worship, which led to their decline.” The Emperor then ordered the priests of Yue to establish a temple in Yue, placing an altar without a sacrificial table, offering sacrifices to the gods and spirits, using chicken divination. The Emperor believed in these practices, and the worship of the Yue temple and chicken divination began to spread.
Gongsun Qing said, “Celestial beings can indeed be seen, but the Emperor always seeks them in haste, and thus cannot meet them. Now, Your Majesty can build a platform, like the one at Goushi City, offering dried meats, dates, and other offerings to summon the celestial beings. They are said to prefer residing in pavilions.” The Emperor then ordered the construction of the Feilian Pavilion and Gui Pavilion in Chang’an, and the Yiyan Shou Pavilion at the Ganquan Palace. He sent Gongsun Qing, holding the imperial decree, to arrange offerings and await the arrival of the celestial beings. A “Tongtian Terrace” was also built, where offerings were placed in hopes of attracting celestial beings. The Ganquan Palace also constructed a front hall, beginning the expansion of the palace buildings. During the summer, lingzhi mushrooms grew within the palace. Since the Emperor had successfully blocked the Yellow River’s breach and built the Tongtian Terrace, it was said that a divine light appeared in the sky. The Emperor issued an imperial edict stating:
“Within the Ganquan Palace, nine lingzhi mushrooms have grown, so I hereby issue a general amnesty for the people. Female criminals are relieved of their labor duties and punishment.”
The following year, the Emperor launched a campaign against Choson. The summer brought droughts. Gongsun Qing said, “During Emperor Huang’s ritual sacrifices, droughts occurred, possibly to dry the soil of the sacrificial altar. The drought is expected to last three years.” The Emperor then issued a decree saying, “The drought likely serves to dry the sacrificial soil. The people of the world should honor the spirit star of agriculture with reverence.”
In the third year, the Emperor performed a sacrifice in the outskirts of Yong County. He then traveled along the road to Huizhong for inspection. In the spring, he arrived at Mingze, then returned from the Western River.
The next winter, the Emperor toured the southern regions, reaching Jiangling and then traveling eastward. He ascended Tianzhu Mountain in Qian County, conducting a sacrificial rite, naming it the Southern Peak. He then traveled by boat along the river, passing through Xunyang, Congyang, and Pengli lakes, conducting sacrificial rites at famous mountains and rivers. He continued north to Langya Prefecture and traveled along the coast. In April, during the tenth lunar month, he arrived at Fenggao County and performed the grand sealing and sacrificial ritual.
When the Emperor initially performed the grand sacrificial ritual on Mount Tai, he had intended to construct a Ming Tang (Hall of Enlightenment) at the northeast corner of Mount Tai, which had once been the site of an ancient hall in a dangerous and narrow area. The Emperor wished to build a similar hall beside Fenggao County but was unsure of the exact measurements and design. Gong Suyi, a man from Jinan, presented a drawing of the Ming Tang from the time of the Yellow Emperor. The drawing depicted a hall without walls on all four sides, covered with a thatched roof, surrounded by water, with a palace wall enclosing it and a sky bridge built around it. There was a tower above the hall, extending from the southwest into the building, named Kunlun Dao (Kunlun Path). The Emperor would enter through this path to worship the supreme deity. The Emperor then ordered that a Ming Tang be constructed at Wenshang, near Fenggao, following the design presented by Gong Suyi.
When the fifth year arrived for another sacrificial ceremony, the Emperor arranged for the spirits of Taiyi and the Five Emperors to be seated at the highest place for the ritual, with the spirit of Emperor Gao positioned facing them. In the lower area, sacrifices were made to the Earth God, offering twenty head each of cattle, sheep, and pigs. The Emperor entered through Kunlun Dao and began the sacrificial rites, as per the customary procedures for the altar. After the ceremony, offerings were burned in the hall. Following this, the Emperor ascended Mount Tai to conduct a secret sacrifice at the summit. During the public sacrifice at the base of the mountain for the Five Emperors, the ceremony was conducted in accordance with their respective positions, with only the Yellow Emperor and the Red Emperor being honored side by side. The officiating official accompanied them during the sacrificial rites. A fire was lit on the summit of Mount Tai, and the flames were echoed below.
Two years later, on the first day of November, which was the first day of the lunar month and marked the Winter Solstice, astronomers believed this day to be the true start of the calendar. The Emperor personally visited Mount Tai and performed a sacrifice to the supreme deity at the Ming Tang on that day. Since it had been less than five years since the previous sacrificial ritual, no grand ceremony was held. The sacrificial prayer read: “Heaven has granted the Emperor the celestial mandate of Taiyuan and the divine strategy, which shall cycle eternally. The Emperor faithfully worships the Taiyi deity here.” The Emperor then journeyed eastward to the sea, inspecting those who had gone there seeking immortals and Taoist practitioners, but finding no results. However, the Emperor sent more envoys, hoping to encounter the divine beings.
On November 7th, a fire broke out at the Bai Liang Terrace. On the first day of December, the Emperor personally went to Gaoli Mountain to make offerings to the Earth God. He then traveled to the Bohai Sea, where he gazed from afar and paid homage to the sacred mountains of Penglai and others, hoping to reach the otherworldly realm where the immortals resided.
After returning to the capital, the Emperor found that the Bai Liang Terrace had been destroyed in the fire. He thus decided to move the administration to the Ganquan Palace, where he began receiving reports from various regions and states. Gongsun Qing remarked, “When the Yellow Emperor constructed the Qingling Terrace, it was destroyed by fire within twelve days. The Yellow Emperor then built the Ming Ting, which later became known as the Ganquan Palace.” Many Taoists also believed that ancient emperors had established their capitals at Ganquan. The Emperor later held court at Ganquan Palace and constructed residences for the feudal lords there.
Yongzhi advised, “In the Yue region, after a fire, any buildings rebuilt are always larger than the original, as this is believed to help prevent further destruction by fire.” Following this advice, the Emperor began the construction of the Jianzhang Palace, which was vast in scale, with thousands of gates. The front hall was higher than the Weiyang Palace, while the eastern side featured the Fengque (Phoenix Tower), standing over 20 meters high. On the western side was the Tang Zhongyuan, which included a tiger enclosure several dozen miles wide. To the north, a large water pool was constructed, with a gradual platform over 20 meters high, named Taiye Pool. Within the pool, four mountains—Penglai, Fangzhang, Yingzhou, and Huliang—were built as replicas of the legendary immortal islands of the sea, along with stone sculptures of tortoises and fish. To the south, there were the Jade Hall, Wall Gate, and carved bird statues. The palace also featured a Divine Platform and the Jinggan Tower, standing over 50 meters tall, with paths connecting the various halls.
In the summer, the Han Dynasty revised the calendar, designating the first month of the summer calendar as the beginning of the year. The official dress of the court was now yellow, and official seals were all standardized to five characters. As a result, this year was declared the “Taichu” era. In this year, the Emperor led a campaign to the west to conquer Dawan. There was a severe locust infestation, and Empress Ding and others in Luoyang performed rituals to summon divine forces to bring misfortune to the Xiongnu and Dawan.
The following year, the chief official reported that during the five sacrificial rituals at Yong County, the unroasted sacrificial offerings lacked fragrance. The Emperor then ordered the sacrificial officials to offer young calves as mature offerings to the five deities, choosing animals based on the principles of the Five Elements. Wooden figurines of horses were used to replace strong horses for sacrifices, though real horses were still used when making offerings to famous mountains and rivers. The usual rituals were maintained during the Emperor’s inspection tours.
The following year, the Emperor embarked on a journey eastward to the sea, seeking to explore matters related to immortals and divine beings, but found no miraculous results. Some Taoist priests claimed that during the reign of the Yellow Emperor, five cities and twelve towers were constructed to welcome the immortals, an area known as Yingnian. The Emperor gave his approval to build five cities and twelve towers as described by the priests, naming them “Mingnian.” The Emperor personally traveled there to conduct rituals and offer sacrifices to the supreme deity, dressed in ceremonial yellow robes.
Gong Suyi said, “Although the Yellow Emperor had already constructed an altar on Mount Tai to worship Heaven, after the Wind God, he and notable figures such as Ju and Qi Bo urged the Yellow Emperor to build another altar on East Tai Mountain for a heavenly sacrifice. Only when it was aligned with auspicious omens and the rituals were properly performed could one attain immortality.” Following these words, the Emperor ordered the preparation of offerings and traveled to East Tai Mountain. Upon arrival, he found East Tai Mountain to be small and not befitting its legendary reputation. Consequently, he commanded the priests to perform the rituals but did not hold the grand sacrificial ceremony. The Emperor then instructed Gong Suyi to maintain offerings and await the arrival of divine beings there.
In the summer, the Emperor returned to Mount Tai to perform the regular quinquennial sacrificial rites, and this time, an additional ritual was added at Shilu Mountain, a site considered sacred by many Taoist priests, who believed it to be the dwelling place of immortals. The Emperor personally conducted the sacrificial rites there, honoring the Earth God.
Five years later, the Emperor performed another sacrificial ceremony on Mount Tai, and on his return journey, he made offerings at Chang Mountain.
During his reign, the Emperor established several temples for worship, including the Taiyi Temple and the Earth God Temple. Every three years, the Emperor personally visited these temples for sacrificial rites. He also instituted a regular imperial sacrificial system, where a grand ceremony was held every five years. The people of Bo, led by the official Miu Ji, petitioned to build additional temples, including those for Taiyi, San Yi, Ming Yang, Ma Xing, and Chi Xing, and these were all managed by priests such as Kuan Shu, who performed the annual rites. In total, there were six temples, including the Earth God Temple, all overseen by the Grand Sacrificial Priest.
The Emperor performed sacrifices at the well-known temples of the Eight Immortals, as well as at other famous sites like Mingnian and Fan Mountain, when passing by. However, when he left, the rituals were considered complete. Taoist priests who constructed their own temples were responsible for the ceremonies, and once they passed away, the sacrifices ceased, with no further oversight by the priests. Other temples continued to operate according to established customs.
Twelve years later, when the Emperor held another grand sacrificial ceremony, he reflected on how the deities he had worshipped had extended across the Five Great Mountains and the Four Rivers. As for the Taoist priests who sought to honor immortals and search for the mythical Penglai Mountain in the sea, their efforts yielded no results. Figures like Gongsun Qing, who awaited divine beings by marking large human footprints as a sign, were likewise ineffective. By this time, the Emperor had grown increasingly weary of the priests’ fantastical claims, yet he continued to keep them close, unwilling to sever ties, still hoping one day to encounter a true practitioner of the Tao.
From that point on, the priests spoke more frequently of their rituals and the gods, but whether their actions produced results is left to one’s imagination.
Sima Qian, the Grand Historian, said: “I accompanied the Emperor on his journey, participating in the rites to worship Heaven, Earth, and the many deities of mountains and rivers. I also took part in the grand sacrificial ceremonies. I was present at the Emperor’s court, where I observed the priests and sacrificial officers, listening to their words and studying their practices. Upon my return, I recorded and examined the activities surrounding the worship of gods and spirits throughout history, revealing the true nature of these ceremonies. Future generations may look to these records to understand the customs of the past. As for the details of the ritual implements used, such as the sacrificial vessels and jade, the officials responsible for the ceremonies kept records of the proceedings.”