Since ancient times, those who were ordained by heaven to become emperors were seldom without the tradition of conducting the grand ceremony of Fengshan (offering sacrifices on Mount Tai). It is likely that many emperors, without the necessary auspicious signs or divine responses, hastily performed the ritual. However, there has never been an instance where the required auspicious omens and divine responses were present, yet the emperor failed to ascend Mount Tai. Some emperors, although they received the mandate of heaven and ascended the throne, were unable to achieve great success in governance. Others, having reached the ancestral homeland, failed to conduct the ceremony of Fengshan with the necessary moral and ceremonial grandeur. A few, whose virtue matched the grandeur required, were still unable to carry out the ritual. Thus, those who were able to perform the Fengshan ceremony were few and far between.
The “Zhuan” states, “If the ritual is not performed for three years, the system of rites will be destroyed; if music is not performed for three years, it will be corrupted.” In times of prosperity, the Fengshan ceremony was conducted to repay the heavens for their blessings, while in times of decline, such rituals were suspended. Over the span of more than a thousand years, and even more recently in the past few centuries, the ritual of Fengshan has been fragmented and lost, with the specific circumstances and details fading into obscurity.
The “Shangshu” records that Emperor Shun, using the celestial armillary sphere and jade balance, adjusted the seven celestial parameters. He then offered sacrifices to the Supreme Deity, to the six ancestral spirits, to the mountains and rivers, and to various gods. He gathered the sacred jade held by the various regional rulers, selected auspicious months and days, and assembled the lords and ministers from the four regions. He returned the sacred jade to them. In the second month of the year, he traveled eastward to inspect Mount Tai. Mount Tai, known as Dai Zhong, was the site of the grand ritual. He set fire to kindling and performed sacrifices to the various mountains and rivers. Then, he paid homage to the Eastern monarchs. The Eastern monarchs were the rulers of the eastern regions. Following this, he adjusted the timing of the four seasons and the lunar months, unified the music and measurements, and meticulously performed rites for the various social classes, from nobles to commoners. In the fifth month, he traveled south to Mount Heng. In the eighth month, he went to Mount Hua in the west, and in the eleventh month, he visited Mount Heng in the north. The rituals at each of these mountains were similar to those at Mount Tai. Mount Song, or Mount Songgao, was inspected once every five years.
Emperor Yu continued this tradition of inspections. Fourteen generations later, under Emperor Kong Jia, who was indulgent in his virtues and worshipped the gods excessively, the gods were disrespected, and two dragons left the kingdom. Three generations later, Emperor Tang overthrew the tyrant King Jie of the Xia dynasty. He considered abolishing the altar dedicated to the gods of the land, deeming it inappropriate, and instead issued a proclamation known as the “Summer Altar” document. Eight generations later, during the reign of Emperor Tai Wu, a rare phenomenon occurred when two trees, a mulberry and a valley tree, grew together as one in his courtyard. In a single night, they grew to the thickness of a human arm, causing the emperor to be deeply frightened. The diviner Yi Zhi explained, “Wickedness cannot triumph over virtue, and evil cannot suppress righteousness.” Emperor Tai Wu then focused on cultivating virtue and administering good governance, and the trees withered and died. Yi Zhi informed the diviner Wu Xian, who recorded this event in four chapters of “Xian You,” and from that point, Wu Xian’s name became famous.
Fourteen generations later, Emperor Wu Ding appointed the sage Fu Yue as prime minister, and the Shang dynasty once again flourished under his reign. It was during this time that the imperial court conducted rituals to honor the gods. When a wild chicken perched upon the ear of a sacrificial vessel and crowed, Emperor Wu Ding was alarmed, but his ancestor Ji reassured him, saying, “As long as you cultivate virtue, there is nothing to fear.” Wu Ding heeded this advice, and his reign remained peaceful. Five generations later, Emperor Wu Yi neglected the spirits, and he was struck by lightning, leading to his death. Three generations later, the tyrant Emperor Zhou conducted excessive indulgences, and King Wu raised an army to overthrow him. Thus, it can be seen that in the beginning, respect for the gods was paramount, but over time, it gradually declined.
The “Zhou Guan” states that on the winter solstice, the emperor would offer sacrifices to heaven at the southern outskirts of the capital to usher in the arrival of the summer solstice. On the summer solstice, sacrifices were offered to the earth spirits. Music and dance were essential to ensure that the gods would accept the offerings. The emperor’s sacrifices to the great mountains and rivers were treated with the same reverence as those given to the three grand officials. The local lords only offered sacrifices to the mountains and rivers within their domains. The four major rivers referred to here are the Yangtze River, Yellow River, Huai River, and Ji River. The emperor’s sacrificial offerings were conducted at the Ming Tang or Bi Yong, while the lords held their ceremonies at the Pan Gong.
When Duke of Zhou became the regent for King Cheng, he established a system of rituals. During the annual sacrifices, after offering prayers to Heaven, the memorial to King Wen was made in the Ming Tang to align with the will of the Supreme Deity. Since the time of Emperor Xia Yu, who initiated the sacrifices to the gods of the land, the ritual of the God of Agriculture (Hou Ji) was continued due to the deity’s role in ensuring the success of farming. Therefore, both the altar sacrifices and the ritual to the gods of the land have a long history.
After the fall of the Shang dynasty at the hands of the Zhou dynasty, fourteen generations passed, and as the moral and social order declined, rites and music were abandoned. The feudal lords grew reckless, and King You of Zhou was defeated by the Dog Rong tribes, prompting the capital of Zhou to move east to Luoyi. Duke Xiang of Qin led an army to rescue Zhou, and for his merits, he was granted the title of a feudal lord. Duke Xiang of Qin, who ruled in the western borderlands, considered himself a representative of the lesser spirits and conducted rituals to the White Emperor at the Western Altar, offering horses, oxen, and rams. Sixteen years later, Duke Wen of Qin ventured east to hunt, arriving at the area between the Wei and Luo rivers. He decided to settle there after receiving an auspicious omen. In a dream, he saw a yellow serpent descending from the sky, its body reaching all the way to the fields near Fu Cheng. Duke Wen sought advice from the historian Shi Dun, who explained that the serpent was a symbol of the Supreme Deity. Therefore, Duke Wen conducted a great sacrificial ceremony at the Fu Altar, offering three sacrificial animals to the White Emperor.
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Before the establishment of the Fu Altar, there were already abandoned altars in the vicinity of Yongcheng—Wu Yang Wu Altar near the city and Hao Altar to the east. These were left in disrepair with no one to maintain them. Some say, “Since ancient times, due to the elevated terrain of Yongzhou, which was believed to be a residence of the gods, the altars were established here for the worship of the Supreme Deity, and other temples to various gods also gathered in this area. It is said that offerings were made during the time of the Yellow Emperor and continued into the late Zhou dynasty.” However, these accounts are not found in classical texts and are typically not spoken of by the scholars or the aristocracy.
Nine years after the establishment of the Fu Altar, Duke Wen of Qin obtained a strange object that resembled a stone. He conducted a sacrifice to it on the northern slope of Mount Chen in the city. The deity sometimes failed to appear for years but would occasionally manifest several times within a single year. These appearances often occurred at night, with a brilliant light resembling a shooting star, coming from the southeast and converging at the altar city. The sound was like a rooster’s crowing, prompting wild chickens to join in the nocturnal chorus. An offering of livestock was made to this deity, and it was named Chen Bao.
Seventy-eight years after the establishment of the Fu Altar, Duke De of Qin ascended the throne. Following divinations, he chose Yongcheng as his residence, and later, his descendants expanded their territories along the Yellow River, making Yongcheng their capital. Many temples in the city were constructed during this period. Sacrificial offerings involved as many as three hundred head of livestock. Temples for rituals to Fuxi were also built, and dogs were ritually slaughtered at the four corners of the city to ward off harmful influences and disasters.
Duke De passed away two years after his ascension. Four years later, King Xuan of Qin established the Mi Altar south of the Wei River to honor the Green Emperor.
Fourteen years later, Duke Miao of Qin succeeded to the throne but fell ill for five days without regaining consciousness. Upon awakening, he claimed to have dreamed of the Supreme Deity, who commanded him to restore order within the Jin state. The historian recorded this event, and it was preserved in the royal archives. Later generations spoke of Duke Miao’s direct communication with the heavens.
Nine years into Duke Miao’s reign, King Huan of Qi had become the hegemon, gathering the feudal lords at Kui Hill to form an alliance. This prompted the idea of performing the Fengshan ritual. Minister Guan Zhong said, “In ancient times, seventy-two families conducted the Fengshan and sacrifices at Mount Tai. However, I recall only twelve. In the past, the Emperor Huangdi performed sacrifices at Mount Tai; so did Emperor Yao, Emperor Shun, Emperor Yu, King Tang, and King Cheng of Zhou. They all conducted the Fengshan ceremony after receiving the mandate of heaven.” King Huan replied, “I have waged wars in the north against the Mountain Rong, passed through Guzu; fought in the west against the Great Xia, crossing the desolate sands and climbing Mount Be’er; and in the south, I reached Zhao Ling and ascended Mount Xiong’er to view the Yangtze and Han Rivers. I have called upon the lords three times to unite for military campaigns, and six times for political and diplomatic matters. I have gathered the feudal lords nine times in total, unifying the world with none daring to oppose me. How is this different from the emperors of the Three Dynasties who received the mandate of heaven?”
Seeing that King Huan could not be swayed by words, Guan Zhong cleverly presented challenges, saying, “In ancient times, the ceremony of Fengshan required millet from the Xao region, rice from the Beili region, and ceremonial items made of reeds from the Jianghuai area. Gifts included the rare halibut from the East Sea and the mythical pair of birds from the West Sea. Furthermore, fifteen auspicious omens would appear on their own. Yet, today, there are no signs of auspiciousness—there are no phoenixes or qilins, no good grains, and the fields are overgrown with weeds and pests. Evil birds such as owls have appeared in the court. Is it truly appropriate to perform the Fengshan ceremony in such circumstances?”
King Huan abandoned the idea of performing the Fengshan ritual. That year, Duke Miao of Qin sent Yi Wu back to his homeland to establish himself as the ruler of Jin. Duke Miao would later establish three more rulers for the Jin state and help quell internal rebellions. He reigned for thirty-nine years before passing away.
More than a century later, Confucius discussed the Six Arts. In the records, it is briefly noted that a new king, following a change of surname, performed sacrifices at Mount Tai. There were over seventy such occurrences, but Confucius did not elaborate on the formal rituals of Fengshan, possibly due to their complexity or obscurity. When asked about the rites of deep sacrifices, Confucius replied, “I do not know. If I knew the rites of deep sacrifice, I would understand all things in the world as clearly as observing the lines on my palm.” According to the “Book of Songs,” during the reign of King Zhou, after King Wen received the mandate of heaven, there were no references to the sacrifice at Mount Tai. After King Wu overthrew the Shang dynasty, the world was not yet peaceful, and he passed away two years later. It was only under King Cheng of Zhou, when peace and good governance had been restored, that the idea of performing the Fengshan ceremony became reasonable. However, after King Cheng, various feudal lords and their ministers took control, and the Ji family in the state of Lu continued the practice of making offerings at Mount Tai. Confucius mocked this ritual as a mere formality.
During this period, Chang Hong, utilizing magic, served King Ling of Zhou. As the feudal lords became unwilling to meet the Zhou king, the Zhou dynasty grew weak and unable to punish them. In response, Chang Hong boldly began rituals invoking spirits, setting up a ceremony to shoot the “Li Shou,” a symbol of those lords who refused to come and pay respects. When the feudal lords refused, the Jin people captured and executed Chang Hong. From that time, the Zhou dynasty’s association with magical practices and spirits began with Chang Hong.
Over a century later, Duke Ling of Qin established dual altars at Wuyang – the Upper Altar to venerate the Yellow Emperor and the Lower Altar to commemorate the Flame Emperor.
Forty-eight years thereafter, Dan the Grand Historian of Zhou prophesied to Duke Xian of Qin: “When Qin first allied with Zhou, separation followed union. Five centuries hence shall reunite them, and seventeen years thereafter a hegemon shall emerge.” When golden rain descended upon Yueyang, Duke Xian interpreted this as a metallic omen from the Five Elements cosmology, subsequently constructing the Xi Altar to worship the White Deity of the West.
A hundred and twenty years later, Qin’s conquest of Zhou saw the Nine Sacred Tripods transferred to Qin territory, though legends persist of their submersion in Si River near Pengcheng after the destruction of Song’s Great Altar. Another 115 years witnessed Qin’s ultimate unification of China.
Upon imperial ascension, Qin Shi Huang received counsel aligning his regime with Water Virtue: “The Yellow Emperor’s Earth Virtue manifested through giant earthworms, Xia’s Wood Virtue through verdant dragons, Shang’s Metal Virtue through silver springs, Zhou’s Fire Virtue through crimson phoenixes. Your Majesty’s Water Virtue was presaged by the black dragon captured by Duke Wen.” Thus commenced hydrological nomenclature reforms – renaming the Yellow River as “Virtuous Waters,” inaugurating winter months as the calendar commencement, adopting black as imperial hue, standardizing measurements by sixes, and elevating legalist governance.
During his third regnal year’s eastern progress, the Emperor commissioned scholars from Qi and Lu to draft Mount Tai’s fengshan rituals. When Confucian advisors proposed archaic ceremonies involving straw mats and wheel-binding rituals to protect sacred flora, the pragmatic ruler dismissed their “impractical antiquarianism,” instead constructing imperial roads for his procession. The subsequent stone inscriptions extolling Qin’s achievements still crown Tai’s summit, though the exact ceremonial details remain shrouded in secrecy.
Post-ceremony maritime expeditions saw the Emperor worshiping the Eight Primeval Deities along coastal regions – celestial and chthonic divinities ranging from the Heavenly Sovereign at Tianqi Spring to the Solar Lord at Chengshan’s cliffside sunrise observatory. These cultic practices, originating from Zou Yan’s Five Phase theories and amplified by Yan-Qi mystics, spawned myriad schools of alchemical transcendence and spectral conjuration.
This syncretic fusion of cosmological statecraft and necromantic pursuit would characterize Qin’s spiritual governance, blending rigorous legalism with ecstatic shamanism in pursuit of perpetual empire.
On the Quest for Divine Realms and Imperial Sacremonies
Since the reigns of Kings Wei and Xuan of Qi through King Zhao of Yan, successive rulers dispatched maritime expeditions seeking the mythical triad of Penglai, Fangzhang, and Yingzhou – celestial isles said to float amidst the Bohai Sea. Though geographically proximate, these ethereal realms proved elusive; vessels approaching their shores would invariably be repelled by divine winds. Legend has it that fortunate voyagers glimpsed palaces of argent and aurum where alabaster-hued beasts roamed freely, and where shenxian immortals guarded the elixir of eternal life. From afar, the islands shimmered as nacreous clouds, yet upon approach appeared submerged beneath the waves – a mirage forever beyond mortal grasp, yet endlessly coveted by earthly sovereigns.
Following his unification of the realm, Qin Shi Huang (the First Emperor) embarked on coastal pilgrimages, besieged by mystics recounting these tales. Skeptical of personal visitation yielding success, he commissioned fleets crewed by young virgins to pursue the quest. Returning navigators perpetuated the mythos, claiming celestial visions despite storm-thwarted landings. Subsequent imperial progresses saw the Emperor traverse Langya, Hengshan, and Shangdang (207 BCE), later inspecting alchemists at Jieshi Mountain (204 BCE). His final southern expedition (210 BCE) sought pharmacological immortality through maritime channels, culminating in his demise at Sand Hill Palace.
Emperor Huhai continued this sacred legacy, undertaking an eastern progress (209 BCE) to re-consecrate stone monuments extolling his predecessor”s virtue. Yet autumn”s rebellion presaged the Qin collapse within three years.
Scholars subsequently maligned the Qin legacy, propagating counter-narratives that the First Emperor had failed celestial endorsement at Mount Tai – an ironic twist given his meticulous adherence to ritual protocol.
Concerning terrestrial sanctity: The ancient capitals along the Yellow and Luo Rivers established Songshan as the Central Sacred Peak, with other mountains and waterways aligned to cardinal directions. Qin imperialism reoriented this cosmic geography, placing all Five Sacred Peaks and Four Sacred Rivers east of Xianyang. Through successive dynasties, the sacrificial rites evolved as political domains shifted, until Qin systematization codified state rituals.
The eastern sacred topography comprised:
- Five Peaks: Songshan (Central), Hengshan, Tai (Eastern), Kuaiji (Southeast), Xiangshan
- Two Rivers: Ji and Huai
Rites featured seasonal bovine sacrifices with jade tablets, adapting to climatic anomalies through augmented ceremonies.
Western sanctity encompassed:
- Seven Peaks: Hua, Shuai, Yue, Qishan, Wuyue, Hongzhong, Dushan (Sichuan”s Mount Min)
- Four Rivers: Yellow (Linjin), Han (Hanzhong), Jiuqiong (Chaona), Yangtze (Sichuan)
The Four Ancestral Mounds hosted grain-offering rites, while proximity to the capital enhanced Yongzhou ceremonies with chariot and foal sacrifices.
Minor waterways near Xianyang – Ba, Chan, Chang, Feng, Lao, Jing, and Wei – received honorary observances without full rites. Lesser bodies like Chanluo Lakes and Mingze Marsh maintained modified ceremonies contingent on seasonal conditions.
This ritual architecture reveals the Qin synthesis of cosmological order and bureaucratic precision, its sacred geography mirroring imperial dominion while perpetuating eternal aspirations.
In Yong Province stood an unparalleled constellation of over one hundred sacred shrines venerating celestial bodies and elemental deities – the solar and lunar orbs, Sirius and Antares, the Northern and Southern Dippers, Mars, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, the 28 Lunar Mansions, along with divine stewards of wind, rain, oceans, and terrestrial administrators. Western counties maintained dozens more sanctuaries, including the Zhou Monarchs’ Temple in Huxian, the Celestial Deity Shrine in Xiagui, and the Luminous Ancestral Halls in Feng-Hao counties. Notably, the Du Lord Temple within Yong’s Jian complex held particular renown as the sanctum of a Zhou dynasty general-turned-chthonic protector, revered as the most efficacious minor shrine in the Qin heartland. All observances followed strict seasonal liturgies.
Among these, the Four Altars of Yong dedicated to the Supreme Deity commanded paramount reverence, though none rivaled the spectacular rites at the Chenbao Temple. The Yong quadrants observed triennial grand sacrifices complemented by seasonal rituals – spring supplications against unseasonal thaws, autumn petitions during river desiccations, winter propitiations for icebound roads, and midsummer colt offerings. The Chenbao cult uniquely convened only during its eponymous deity’s annual epiphany. Ceremonial carriages drawn by four wooden dragons and equine effigies accompanied sacrifices of vermilion bullocks in warm seasons and foals in cold, their hues corresponding to the Five Directional Chromas. Live calves and lambs were interred with ritual jades and silks in subterranean offerings, eschewing conventional vessels.
The Han dynasty inherited this ceremonial framework while imprinting its own mythos. Emperor Gaozu’s rise carried divine portents – his slaying of a white serpent (interpreted as the White Emperor’s heir) and subsequent triumph as the Red Emperor’s scion. Upon establishing dominion, he reinstituted Qin ceremonial offices while expanding the pantheon. Noting the absence in Qin’s Four Deity cults (White, Azure, Yellow, and Red), Gaozu proclaimed: “The pentad of cosmic sovereigns awaited my ascension for completion,” thereby instituting the Black Deity’s Northern Altar.
Key reforms included:
- Restoration of the Fenghuang agrarian altar in his birthplace
- Construction of Chiyou’s temple in Chang’an, honoring the war deity whose crimson banners had guided his campaigns
- Establishment of a centralized ritual bureau overseeing:
- Liang shamans administering celestial-terrestrial worship
- Jin cults venerating the Five Deities and astral guardians
- Qin traditions of soil deities and clan protectors
- Chu practices of household spirits and harvest gods
- Nine Heavens cultic observances
The frontier River Shaman cult maintained its aquatic rites at Linjin, while the Southern Mountain cult paradoxically honored the deposed Second Qin Emperor as a chthonic power. Following counsel about Zhou dynasty precedents, Gaozu mandated nationwide construction of Millet Star temples, ensuring agrarian prosperity through bovine sacrifices.
This intricate tapestry of state cults – blending astral veneration, dynastic mythmaking, and bureaucratic systematization – formed the sacral backbone of Han legitimacy, its rituals oscillating between cosmic pageantry and political theater.
In the spring of the tenth year of Emperor Gaozu’s reign, the governing officials requested that each county hold regular sacrifices to the state and ancestral deities during the second month of spring and the twelfth month of the lunar year, offering sheep and pigs as sacrifices. The common people were to pool resources according to the local communities to carry out these rituals. Emperor Gaozu approved the request by issuing a written decree, stating, “This is acceptable.”
Eighteen years later, Emperor Wen ascended to the throne. In his thirteenth year of reign, he issued an edict saying, “Currently, the secretive blessings have shifted their faults to the ministers, and I disapprove of this practice. Starting today, I hereby abolish secret blessings.”
At the outset, the mountains and rivers within the feudal states were overseen by the priests of each state, who conducted sacrifices. The imperial priests did not manage these affairs. However, after the abolition of the states of Qi and Huainan, an order was issued for the chief priest to take charge of these rituals, continuing as before, according to the annual cycles.
That year, an edict was issued stating, “Since I ascended the imperial throne thirteen years ago, the blessings of the ancestral spirits and the state deities have ensured stability and good fortune, with no plagues or disasters. The harvests have been bountiful year after year. How can someone as undeserving as I be granted such blessings? It is indeed the grace of the gods. I have heard that in ancient times, those who received divine favor must repay it with sacrifices, so I wish to increase the rituals for the gods. After consultation with the governing officials, it has been decided that the five altars in Yongzhou will each receive an additional chariot for ceremonial use, along with all the necessary accessories. The Western and Qiu altars will receive an additional wooden effigy chariot and four wooden effigy horses, along with the necessary accessories. The sacrifices to the Yellow River, Qiu River, and Han River will include two jade offerings each. Additionally, all temples will expand their altars and increase their sacrificial vessels, with changes made according to rank. However, from now on, priests are to make offerings without petitioning the gods for personal favors on behalf of the emperor.”
Gongsun Chen, a man from Lu, submitted a memorial, stating, “Originally, the Qin dynasty inherited the blessings of water, and now the Han dynasty enjoys them. If we trace the transfer of the five virtues, the Han dynasty should be associated with the virtue of Earth, which is symbolized by the appearance of the yellow dragon. Therefore, the new year should be set in accordance with the yellow dragon’s appearance, and the colors of attire should be altered, favoring yellow over the other colors.” At that time, the Chancellor Zhang Cang, who was well-versed in law and calendrical science, believed that the Han dynasty was aligned with the water element, as evidenced by the flooding of the Yellow River. This was a sign of water’s dominion. Gongsun Chen’s theory, however, was rejected, and his memorial was dismissed. Three years later, the yellow dragon indeed appeared in the Chengji region. Emperor Wen summoned Gongsun Chen, appointed him as a scholar, and tasked him, along with other scholars, to revise the calendar and ceremonial colors. That summer, an edict was issued: “An unusual spirit has appeared in Chengji, causing no harm to the people but ensuring good harvests every year. I intend to offer sacrifices to the supreme deities and consult with the officials on the specifics of the ritual, without letting taboos prevent proper thought and action.” The officials replied, “In ancient times, the emperor personally made offerings in the summer at the outskirts of the capital, which is why it is called the ‘outskirts sacrifice.'” Thus, in April of that year, Emperor Wen himself conducted the first summer sacrifice at the Five Altars in Yongcheng, wearing ceremonial red attire.
The following year, a man named Xin Yuanping from Zhao, known for his ability to forecast omens, presented himself before the emperor and said, “In the northeastern direction of Chang’an, a divine apparition has appeared, displaying five colors and resembling a crown. It is said that the northeast is the dwelling place of the gods, while the west is their burial ground. The appearance of this divine apparition in the northeast is an auspicious omen from the heavens. A temple should be established to honor the supreme deity in line with this omen.” As a result, the Five Emperors’ Temple was built in Weiyang, with each emperor residing in a separate hall. Each hall had five doors, and each side of the temple was dedicated to the corresponding color of the emperor being honored. The rituals and offerings were modeled after those of the Five Altars in Yongcheng.
In April of that year, Emperor Wen personally made offerings at the confluence of the Ba and Wei Rivers, holding a ritual at the Five Emperors’ Temple in Weiyang. The temple faced south toward the Wei River and crossed the Pu Di Pond to the north. When the fire was kindled, the flames illuminated the heavens. As a result, Xin Yuanping was appointed to the position of Senior Minister, and his rewards accumulated to a thousand gold. He was also ordered to work with scholars to compile the “Five Systems” from the six classics, in preparation for discussions on the ritual of Fengshan and imperial tours.
Emperor Wen later visited Changmen, where he seemed to see five figures standing to the north of the road. He ordered the construction of a Five Emperors’ Altar at the spot where the figures had appeared, using five sacrificial animals and the appropriate ritual implements.
The next year, Xin Yuanping sent a jade cup to the imperial palace, with a memorial attached. He had previously informed the emperor, saying, “A divine aura has arrived at the emperor’s palace.” Upon inspection, it was found that a jade cup had indeed been presented, with the inscription “May the ruler enjoy extended life.” Xin Yuanping then predicted, “The sun will appear twice at midday today.” Not long after, the sun reversed its course after noon and appeared again at midday. As a result, Emperor Wen declared his seventeenth year to be the first year of the new era, and ordered celebrations and feasting across the empire.
Xin Yuanping, the court sorcerer, addressed the Emperor: “The sacred Zhou Cauldron lies submerged in the Si River. Now that the Yellow River’s overflow connects to the Si waterways, I discern a golden aura emanating from the Fenyin region northeast of the capital. Might this herald the Cauldron’s resurgence? Though omens manifest, divine artifacts demand mortal pursuit.” The Emperor thus commissioned a riverside temple in southern Fenyin, seeking through ritual supplication to recover the legendary vessel.
Subsequently, memorials exposed Xin’s celestial divinations as elaborate fraud. The sorcerer was condemned by judicial authorities, executed, and his lineage extinguished. Henceforth, Emperor Wen abandoned interest in calendrical reforms and ceremonial regalia, relegating the Five Sovereigns’ temples at Weiyang and Changmen to custodial rites, never again presiding personally.
The following years saw Hun incursions plague the northern frontiers, prompting military mobilization, while harvests faltered intermittently.
Upon Emperor Jing’s ascension, sixteen years of governance perpetuated ancestral rituals without innovation. Not until our reigning Son of Heaven assumed the Dragon Throne did imperial devotion to the numinous realms intensify.
By the inaugural Yuanfeng era, six decades of Han consolidation had birthed an era of stability. Scholar-officials clamored for Fengshan sacrifices and cosmic realignments. The Emperor, enamored of Confucian scholarship, elevated literati like Zhao Wan and Wang Zang to draft protocols for a southern Mingtang ceremonial complex, imperial progresses, and ritual color reforms. Yet before completion, Grand Dowager Dou’s patronage of Yellow Emperor-Laozi doctrines clashed with Confucian ambitions. Secret investigations exposed the scholars’ transgressions, culminating in their suicides and the dissolution of their projects.
Six years after the Dowager’s passing, Emperor Wu summoned erudite minds like Gongsun Hong to court. The following year witnessed the sovereign’s inaugural pilgrimage to Yong, performing suburban sacrifices to the Five Altar Deities—a triennial rite thereafter institutionalized.
Meanwhile, the cult of the Divine Matron flourished. Originating as a martyred mother from Changling, her spirit manifested through mediums Ruo Wan and her kin. When Lady Pingyuan embraced the cult, her descendants rose to prominence. The Emperor enshrined her effigy within the Tianguan Observatory of the Shanglin Park, where her voice echoed without corporeal form.
Concurrently, the mystic Li Shaojun captivated the court with arcane arts—hearth rituals, breatharian practices, and promises of immortality. This enigmatic figure, once steward to the Marquis of Shenze, cultivated an aura of agelessness, claiming spectral command and recalling ancestral hunting grounds with uncanny accuracy. At a Marquess Wu’an banquet, his recollection of a nonagenarian guest’s childhood haunts stunned the assembly. When identifying a Zhou-dynasty bronze vessel as Duke Huan of Qi’s tenth-year relic—later confirmed by inscription—the court trembled, believing him an immortal centuries old.
Thus unfolded an era where cosmological portents and mortal ambitions intertwined, as Han’s celestial mandate sought validation through ritual theater and thaumaturgical spectacle.
The young lord said to the emperor, “Offering sacrifices to the hearth can summon spirits, and after summoning these spirits, cinnabar can be used to refine gold. The gold created through this alchemical process can be crafted into eating utensils, and their use will prolong one’s life. Only by extending life can one reach the immortal island of Penglai, and after meeting the immortals there, performing the Fengshan sacrifice will grant eternal life. The Yellow Emperor is an example of this. I once traveled across the sea and encountered An Qisheng, an immortal. He was eating a date, as large as a melon. This immortal, An Qisheng, resides in the mountains of Penglai, and one can meet him if fate allows, but if not, he will remain hidden.” Thus, the emperor began to personally offer sacrifices to the hearth and sent alchemists to the sea to search for An Qisheng and other immortals, dedicating himself to the practice of refining cinnabar and creating gold.
After a long time, Lord Li passed away. The emperor believed that he had not died, but rather had transformed into an immortal. He ordered the historian of Huangzhong County, a man named Kuan Shu, to learn his methods of alchemy. While An Qisheng could not be found, strange and eccentric alchemists from the seas of Yan and Qi arrived one after another, claiming to know the way of immortality.
Liao Ji, a man from Bo County, presented a memorial to the Qin court, saying, “Among the celestial deities, Taiyi is the most revered, and his assistants are the Five Emperors. In ancient times, the emperor would offer sacrifices to Taiyi in the southeastern suburbs during the spring and autumn, using great offerings. The sacrifice would last seven days, and an altar would be built with steps leading to all eight directions, with doors opening to the ghostly realm.” The emperor commanded the chief priest to build a temple to Taiyi in the southeastern suburbs of Chang’an, following Liao Ji’s method of worship. Later, another memorial was presented, saying, “In ancient times, the emperor would offer sacrifices every three years to the Three Unity Gods: the Sky One, the Earth One, and the Taiyi God.” The emperor approved and ordered the chief priest to perform sacrifices to the Three Unity Gods at the Taiyi altar built by Liao Ji, following the methods outlined in the memorial. Later, yet another memorial was presented, stating, “In ancient times, the emperor would hold a spring ritual to dispel calamities, offering sacrifices to the Yellow Emperor with one owl and one broken mirror; to the Netherworld Sheep with a sheep; to the Horse Deity with a green stallion; to Taiyi and the Earth Mountain Lord with an ox; to the Wuyi Lord with dried fish; and to the Yin-Yang Messenger with a cow.” The emperor ordered the priests to follow these methods at the Taiyi altar next to Liao Ji’s shrine.
Soon after, a white deer appeared in the imperial garden, and its skin was used as currency to invoke auspicious omens, which led to the creation of white gold.
The following year, during a sacrificial ritual at the outskirts of Yongcheng, a unicorn was captured. The officials said, “Your Majesty, through your respectful ritual to the gods, the supreme deity has rewarded you with a unicorn, which is likely a qilin.” It was then presented at the Five Altars, with each altar receiving an additional ox for sacrifice, which was burned in the ritual fire. This event, which followed the creation of white gold, was seen as an omen of divine favor. The emperor granted the feudal lords white gold as a subtle hint that the creation of white gold was in harmony with the will of the heavens.
The King of Jibei believed the emperor was about to perform the Fengshan ritual and thus submitted a memorial offering Mount Tai and nearby cities to the emperor. The emperor, in return, rewarded him with other counties. The King of Changshan was found guilty of a crime and was stripped of his title, but the emperor appointed his brother as the new King of Zhendin to continue the ancestral sacrifices. The Kingdom of Changshan was restructured into a commandery, and so all five sacred mountains came under the direct administration of the emperor’s commanderies.
The following year, a man from Qi, named Shao Weng, who claimed to communicate with spirits, appeared before the emperor. The emperor had a favored concubine, Lady Wang, who passed away. Shao Weng used his methods to summon her and the hearth deity’s appearance in the night, and the emperor, seeing her through the curtain, was moved. As a result, Shao Weng was appointed General Wen Cheng and richly rewarded, treated as an honored guest. Wen Cheng then advised the emperor, “Your Majesty desires to communicate with the divine, but your palace, furnishings, and attire lack the appearance of the sacred. Without the proper divine symbols, the gods will not descend.” As a result, the emperor had a chariot painted with cloud patterns made, ensuring its color matched the heavenly branches and stems to ward off evil spirits. He also built the Ganquan Palace, where a high platform was constructed, adorned with paintings of the heavens, earth, Taiyi, and other spirits, and equipped with sacrificial instruments to summon the divine.
Over a year later, however, Wen Cheng’s methods began to lose their effectiveness, and the gods failed to descend. In an attempt to maintain the illusion, he wrote strange words on silk and fed them to a cow, pretending not to recognize them, claiming that something extraordinary must be inside the cow’s stomach. When the cow was slaughtered, the silk was found to contain bizarre and cryptic words. The emperor, recognizing the handwriting, investigated and discovered that it was a fraud. As a result, Wen Cheng was executed, and the matter was covered up.
Subsequently, the emperor also constructed the Bai Liang Hall, bronze pillars, and the “Immortal Cactus of Chenglu” among other projects.
Two years after the demotion of General Wencheng, the Emperor fell gravely ill at his Dinghu retreat. Despite exhaustive rituals by court shamans and herbal concoctions from physicians, his condition deteriorated. A mystic named You Shui Fagen recommended a spirit-medium from Shang Province, reputedly possessed by divine powers. Summoned to court, this shaman channeled an entity later enshrined as the “Divine Sovereign” at the Ganquan Palace.
When the Emperor inquired about his prognosis, the oracle proclaimed: “Your Majesty need not fear this malady. Once recovered, convene with me at Ganquan.” Miraculously, the sovereign rallied and journeyed to the sacred complex, his health fully restored. In gratitude, he decreed a general amnesty and commissioned the Palace of Longevity for the deity. Within its hallowed halls, the Supreme Unity Deity reigned supreme, attended by cosmic administrators like the Great Prohibitor and Director of Destinies. Though invisible, the entity’s whispers echoed human speech—sometimes diurnal, often nocturnal—amid billowing silken drapes. Only after elaborate purification rites would the Emperor approach, while shamans mediated offerings and relayed celestial edicts codified as “Pictured Mandates”—mundane proverbs imbued with imperial mystique.
Three years hence, court astrologers petitioned to recalibrate the era’s nomenclature based on omens: the inaugural epoch became Jian (“Establishment”), the second Guang (“Radiance”) after celestial apparitions, and the current age Shou (“Divine Hunt”) following the capture of a unicorn-like qilin.
During subsequent rituals at Yong, the Emperor mused: “How improper that I venerate Heaven personally yet neglect Earth!” After consultations with Grand Historian Sima Tan and ritualist Kuan Shu, a terraced earthen altar arose at Fen Yin for chthonic worship—yellow-robed ceremonies mirroring celestial protocols. This pilgrimage concluded with imperial decrees reviving Zhou dynasty commemorations and investigations into Mount Tai’s sacred geography.
Amidst these reforms emerged the figure of Luan Da—a towering, silver-tongued rhetorician from Jiaodong court. Capitalizing on the executed Wencheng’s unfinished legacy, this alchemist-opportunist beguiled the throne with promises: “My immortal mentors—Master Anqi and Xianmen Gao—hold secrets to transmute gold, tame floods, and brew elixirs of eternity. Yet they spurn mortal princes. Only through envoys vested with imperial jades and noble titles might their wisdom flow.”
The Emperor, desperate to redeem Wencheng’s failed quest, tested Luan’s “lesser marvels”—witnessing chess pieces move autonomously. Thus began a dangerous courtship between imperial ambition and esoteric charlatanism, where cosmic pageantry masked political theater, and the boundaries of faith and fraud dissolved into the mists of Mount Penglai.
As the Son of Heaven grappled with the Yellow River’s catastrophic breaches and alchemical endeavors stalled, he elevated the mystic Luan Da to “General of Quintuple Potency.” Within months, the charlatan amassed four seals of cosmic authority: Commander of Celestial Forces, Marshal of Terrestrial Powers, General of Supreme Penetration, and his original title. By imperial edict to the Censorate: “As Yu the Great tamed the Nine Rivers, so shall Luan Da harness heaven’s wrath. For two decades I’ve sought those whom cosmic forces might anoint—this man answers the Qian hexagram’s ‘soaring dragon’ and the Hongjian prognostication.” Enfeoffed as Marquis of Letong with a fiefdom yielding two thousand households, Luan basked in opulence—a mansion staffed by a thousand servants, imperial chariots repurposed for his processions, and marriage to Princess Wei, whose dowry transformed her domain into “Privileged Gold City.”
The court witnessed surreal theatrics: the Emperor himself supped at Luan’s table while envoys bearing gifts formed ceaseless caravans. A jade seal titled “General of Celestial Order” was bestowed through dawn rituals—both giver and recipient clad in feathered vestments upon sacred grass, symbolizing parity with cosmic forces. Though Luan’s nightly invocations summoned specters rather than immortals, his ghostly dominion captivated the capital. When he embarked eastward “to consult oceanic sages,” six seals of office jingled at his belt, igniting frenzied emulation among coastal mystics.
Meanwhile, divine providence manifested in Hedong. A shamaness named Jin, conducting rites at the Earth Altar of Wei Hill, unearthed a colossal bronze cauldron—ornate yet inscriptionless. Through layered verification, the relic ascended to ritual prominence. Escorted to Ganquan Palace under celestial amber clouds resembling divine canopies, its journey culminated when the Emperor felled a roe deer mid-procession, repurposing the kill as sacrificial offering.
Court debates erupted over the cauldron’s significance. Ministers invoked legends: the Yellow Emperor’s triune vessels symbolizing heaven-earth-humanity, Yu’s Nine Cauldrons forged from tribute bronze. “This numinous artifact,” they argued, “emerges only in virtuous reigns, having vanished during Zhou’s decline. Its radiance mirrors the auspicious mists at Zhongshan—proof of heaven’s mandate.” Though initially reticent, the Emperor acquiesced to enshrine it in ancestral temples, aligning terrestrial rule with celestial patterns.
Yet the quest for Penglai’s elixir isles persisted. Navigators claimed proximity to the immortal realm but faltered without ethereal guidance. Thus, cloud-diviners joined expeditions—readers of celestial brushstrokes who might decipher the vapor-shrouded paths to transcendence.
In this theater of cosmic politics, Han’s court became a crucible where alchemical ambition and ritual pageantry fused, each omen and artifact a contested cipher in the empire’s dialogue with the divine.
That autumn, the emperor arrived at Yongcheng, preparing to perform the sacrificial rites to the Five Emperors. Some suggested, “The Five Emperors are the aides of the Taiyi deity, and a temple to Taiyi should be established. The emperor should personally perform the rural sacrifice.” The emperor hesitated. Gongsun Qing, a man from Qi, said, “This year, we have obtained the treasured tripod, and on the first day of November, the day of the winter solstice, it aligns exactly with the time of the Yellow Emperor.” Gongsun Qing had a book of recorded observations, which he presented, saying: “The Yellow Emperor obtained the treasured tripod in the city of Wanqu. When he consulted the Ghost Region, the ghost responded, ‘The emperor has obtained the treasured tripod and divine strategy. The first day of the month after the autumn equinox this year marks the winter solstice. From here, the celestial cycle begins anew, endlessly repeating.’ The Yellow Emperor then used divine strategy to calculate, and from that day, the winter solstice would occur on the first day of each lunar month every twenty years, until the twenty cycles, in the 380th year, when the Yellow Emperor ascended to immortality.” Gongsun Qing sought to present this to the emperor through his loyal servant, but the servant dismissed it as absurd, suspecting the book to be a forgery, and refused to deliver it, saying, “The matter of the treasured tripod has already been settled; there is no need for further documents.” However, Gongsun Qing was able to present the matter again through the emperor’s favorite concubine. Pleased with the information, the emperor called for an audience with Gongsun Qing, who explained, “This book was taught to me by Master Shen, who is now deceased.” The emperor asked, “Who was Master Shen?” Gongsun Qing responded, “Master Shen was from Qi. He had dealings with the immortal An Qisheng and received teachings from the Yellow Emperor. There was no book, only this one on the tripod. It mentions that the Han Dynasty will prosper when the name of the Yellow Emperor’s reign reappears. It also states that a sage of the Han will emerge from among the grandchildren and great-grandchildren of Emperor Gaozu. After the appearance of the treasured tripod, one can communicate with the gods and perform the Fengshan rites. Throughout history, seventy-two emperors have performed the Fengshan sacrifice, but only the Yellow Emperor ascended Mount Tai to perform the rites.” Master Shen said, “The emperor of the Han should also ascend Mount Tai to perform the Fengshan rites, as doing so will allow one to ascend to immortality. In the time of the Yellow Emperor, there were thousands of feudal lords, and among them, seven thousand were deified. There are eight famous mountains in the world, three in foreign lands and five in China. The five in China are Mount Hua, Mount Shou, Mount Taishi, Mount Tai, and Mount Donglai. These were the places the Yellow Emperor often visited, where he would meet with the gods. He simultaneously waged war and cultivated immortality, and to prevent the people from criticizing his path, he ordered the execution of anyone who spoke ill of the immortals. After over a hundred years of cultivation, the Yellow Emperor was able to communicate with the gods. He performed the rural sacrifice to the supreme deity at the outskirts of Yongcheng, where he stayed for three months. The Ghost Region, known as Dahon, was buried there after his death, hence the place became known as Hongzhong (the Tomb of the Great Phoenix). The Yellow Emperor then met with countless divine beings in the Ming Court, which was at Ganquan Mountain. His ascension took place at Hanmen, which is present-day Gukou. The Yellow Emperor mined copper at Shou Mountain and cast the tripod at the foot of Mount Jing. When the tripod was completed, a dragon with long whiskers descended from the clouds to greet him. The Yellow Emperor climbed onto its back, and seventy of his ministers and concubines followed him. The dragon then ascended into the sky. Other lower-ranked officials, unable to ascend, clung to the dragon’s whiskers, which were torn off as they fell to the earth, along with the emperor’s bow. The people looked up and saw the Yellow Emperor slowly ascending to the heavens, and they wept while holding the lost bow and the torn whiskers. This is why later generations called this place Dinghu (Tripod Lake), and the bow was known as the “Wuhao Bow.””
Upon hearing this, the emperor exclaimed, “Ah, if only I could be like the Yellow Emperor, I would leave my wife as easily as throwing away an old shoe.” He then appointed Gongsun Qing as a minister and sent him to Mount Taishi in the east to await the arrival of the immortals.
The emperor then proceeded to the outskirts of Yongcheng to perform the rural sacrifice. Later, he journeyed west to Longxi, ascending Mount Kongtong before returning to Ganquan Palace. He ordered the chief priests, including Kuan Shu, to prepare the altar for Taiyi, modeled after the altar of Taiyi in Boji’s time. The altar was built in three tiers. The first tier was for Taiyi, with the altars of the Five Emperors surrounding it, each positioned according to the direction it governed. The central figure, the Yellow Emperor, was placed in the southwestern direction, excluding the passageways of the ghostly realm that connected the layers, thus establishing the Yellow Emperor’s altar. The Taiyi altar’s sacrificial offerings were similar to those at the Five Altars of Yongcheng, but with the addition of wine, dates, and dried meats. A plowing ox was slaughtered for the offerings, and other ritual tools were prepared. The Five Emperors’ altars were only offered wine and ceremonial foods. The lowest tier was a square platform, where offerings to the gods and the Northern Dipper were placed. After the sacrifices, the remaining meat was burned in the ritual fire. The sacrificial animals for the rites were a male ox for the winter solstice and a male sheep or pig for the monthly rites.
On the first day of November at dawn, the emperor began the sacrifice to Taiyi, performing the kowtow ritual. In the morning, he paid homage to the Sun God, and in the evening, he did the same for the Moon God, bowing but not kneeling; however, when he offered sacrifices to Taiyi, it was conducted with the full rural rites of Yongcheng.
The rituals remained the same. The officiants chanted, “Heaven has bestowed the treasured tripod and divine strategy upon the Emperor. From this day forward, each new moon shall follow in succession, an endless cycle without end. The Emperor respectfully offers his obeisance to the celestial deities.” The ceremonial attire was revered for its golden hue. During the sacrifice, the altar was surrounded by blazing flames, and cooking implements were placed by its side. The chief minister reported, “A radiant light has appeared over the altar.” The court officials said, “The Emperor, when he first performed the rural sacrifice at Yunyang, paid homage to the Taiyi deity. The minister presented rare jade and fine offerings to Taiyi. That night, a beautiful radiance appeared, and by morning, a golden aura rose, connecting with the heavens.” The Grand Historian, Kuan Shu, and others declared, “This is the divine favor of the gods, a sign of their protection and blessings. The altar must be constructed in the area where the divine light has appeared, in accordance with the auspicious omen. The Chief Minister should oversee this, ensuring the sacrifices take place every autumn and in the twelfth month, with the Emperor performing the rural sacrifice once every three years.”
That autumn, in preparation for the campaign against the southern Yue, the Emperor prayed to the Taiyi deity for protection and blessings. A flag made of Jing wood was hoisted, adorned with images of the sun, moon, the Northern Dipper, and ascending dragons, symbolizing the three stars of the Taiyi seat. This was designated the “Spirit Flag.” During the military procession, the Grand Historian held the Spirit Flag and directed it toward the target country. General Wuli, sent as an emissary, dared not enter the sea to seek the gods, so he traveled to Mount Tai to pray. The Emperor sent men to follow him and discovered that he had seen nothing. Yet, Wuli falsely claimed to have encountered his master. His magical practices had proven ineffective, and most of his methods had failed. As a result, the Emperor ordered Wuli’s execution.
That winter, Gongsun Qing traveled to Henan to await the arrival of the immortals. He claimed to have seen the footprints of an immortal in the city of Gou. He also reported seeing an object resembling a mountain chicken, moving back and forth over the city. The Emperor himself visited Gou and observed the immortal footprints. He asked Gongsun Qing, “Are you imitating Wen Cheng or Wuli?” Gongsun Qing replied, “The immortals do not come seeking the Emperor, but rather, it is the Emperor who seeks them. Therefore, this matter requires patience, for the gods will not appear if rushed. Talking about immortals may seem absurd, yet over time, it can come to fruition.” In response, the various regions began to clean the roads, repair palaces, temples, and sacred mountains, preparing for the Emperor’s arrival.
That spring, having defeated the southern Yue, the Emperor’s beloved official, Li Yannian, presented a beautiful musical composition. The Emperor praised it greatly and then consulted the ministers, saying, “In rural temples, there are musical performances accompanying sacrifices. Why, then, does our rural sacrifice lack music? How can this be fitting?” The ministers replied, “In ancient times, sacrifices to Heaven and Earth were accompanied by music, as it was believed that the deities would only come to enjoy the offerings when there was music.” Another minister added, “The Emperor Tai ordered the Maiden of Silence to play the fifty-stringed zither. Due to her overwhelming sadness, the Emperor was unable to stop her, so he had her zither split in half to become a twenty-five-stringed zither.” The Emperor then established the southern Yue as a border region and began to use music and dance to pray to Taiyi and the Earth Goddess, calling for more song and dance. From this time forward, the twenty-five-stringed zither and the empty title of “Hou” were introduced.
The following winter, officials advised, “In ancient times, the army first rested and focused on agriculture before performing the Fengshan rites.” The Emperor then journeyed to the northern frontier to Shuo Fang, where he commanded over an army of more than 100,000 men. On his return, he performed a sacrifice at the Yellow Emperor’s tomb on Qiao Mountain and ordered the soldiers to disperse. The Emperor asked, “I have heard that the Yellow Emperor did not die, and yet there is a tomb of the Yellow Emperor. How is this possible?” Someone responded, “After the Yellow Emperor ascended to immortality, his ministers buried his clothing and crown. This is why there is a tomb of the Yellow Emperor.” Once back at Ganquan Palace, and with the Fengshan rites soon to be held at Mount Tai, the Emperor first performed a similar sacrifice to Taiyi.
Since obtaining the treasured tripod, the Emperor and his ministers had been discussing the Fengshan rites. Because the ritual had rarely been performed in the past, records had been lost, and no one knew the specific details of the ceremony. The scholars drew upon texts such as the “Shang Shu,” “Zhou Guan,” and “Wang Zhi,” and quoted stories of sacrificial rites from ancient times, including those of the ox sacrifice during the Fengshan ceremony. Ding Gong, a man from Qi who was over ninety years old, said, “The Fengshan rites are a representation of immortality. Emperor Qin Shi Huang lacked this fortune and could not ascend to the top of the mountain to perform the sacrifice. If Your Majesty ascends the mountain to a certain height, on a day free from wind and rain, the ritual performed at that moment will count as the ascent and the sacrifice.” The Emperor then commanded the scholars to rehearse the ox-sacrifice rituals and draft the ceremonial procedures for the Fengshan rites. Several years later, the day for the Fengshan ceremony finally arrived.
Having listened to Gongsun Qing and the alchemists, the Emperor believed that past emperors had used the Fengshan rites to summon otherworldly beings to communicate with the gods. He wished to emulate the Yellow Emperor’s practice of inviting the immortals of Penglai to attend the ceremony, enhancing his prestige and aligning himself with the virtues of the Nine Emperors. At the same time, he incorporated the Confucian scholars’ approach to lend a more formal, literary flair to the ritual. However, the scholars, unable to fully grasp the details of the Fengshan rites, became bogged down in the ancient texts, unable to use their imagination. The Emperor himself designed the sacrificial vessels for the ceremony, which were then shown to the scholars. Some remarked, “This is different from the ancient rites.” A scholar named Xu Yan said, “The rituals practiced by the Tai Chang students are inferior to those of Lu.” Zhou Ba advised him to draw a new diagram for the Fengshan ceremony. As a result, the Emperor removed Xu Yan and Zhou Ba from office, and all the scholars were dismissed.
In March, the emperor traveled east to Goushi, where he ascended Mount Taishi, the central peak of Mount Tai, to perform a sacrificial ritual. The officials accompanying him at the foot of the mountain reported hearing voices that seemed to chant “Long live the emperor.” When they asked the emperor, he did not respond, and when they asked the lower officials, they too were silent. As a result, three hundred households were granted the title of Taishi to offer sacrifices on the mountain, with their tax revenues earmarked to fund the rituals. Their settlement was named Chonggao (Lofty Township). The emperor continued his journey eastward to Mount Tai. At that time, the trees and plants on the mountain had not yet begun to sprout, so he ordered that large stones be transported to the summit in preparation for the forthcoming sacrificial ceremony.
The emperor then journeyed further east to the sea, where he performed rites to honor the Eight Immortals. The people of Qi sent numerous petitions, discussing strange phenomena and magical practices, numbering in the tens of thousands, but none of these claims could be substantiated. Consequently, the emperor dispatched additional ships, sending thousands of people who spoke of a divine mountain in the sea to search for the mythical Mount Penglai and its immortals. When the emperor traveled, his symbol of authority, carried by Gong Sunqing, always reached the destination first, where the emperor’s chariot would be met at famous mountains and scenic sites. Upon reaching Donglai, Gong Sunqing reported seeing an extraordinarily tall figure at night, several zhang (meters) high. When he approached, the figure vanished, leaving behind only a large footprint, which resembled that of a bird or beast. Some ministers also reported seeing an elderly man walking with a dog, who said, “I wish to meet the emperor’s minister,” and then disappeared without a trace. When the emperor himself saw the large footprint, he was initially skeptical, but after hearing the ministers’ accounts of the old man with the dog, he became convinced that these were indeed manifestations of immortals. The emperor then decided to stay overnight at sea in hopes of encountering these immortals. He permitted Taoist priests to use imperial carriages to deliver messages, and sent out over a thousand requests for the immortals to appear.
In April, after returning from the sea, the emperor arrived at Fenggao County. He found the discussions among the scholars and Taoists about the proper rites for the Fengshan and sacrifice ceremonies to be inconsistent and implausible, making it difficult to implement their suggestions. Upon arriving at Liangfu Mountain, the emperor performed a ceremonial sacrifice to honor the local deities. On the day of Yimao, he ordered the court attendants and scholars to don ceremonial robes: wearing leather caps, holding ceremonial tablets, and performing the ritual of sacrificing an ox. At the foot of Mount Tai, in the eastern part of the mountain, he performed a similar sacrificial ritual, which mirrored the grand sacrifices made to the God of Heaven. The sacrificial mound was 12 feet in width and 9 feet in height, containing a jade tablet with inscriptions that were secret and unknown. After completing the ceremony, the emperor personally took the attendant ministers and ascended the summit of Mount Tai, where a similar sacrificial rite was performed, although the details of this ceremony were not to be disclosed. The following day, the emperor descended the mountain through a hidden path. On the day of Bingchen, he performed the ritual for the God of Mount Tai at Suran Mountain, to honor the earth god in the same manner as the previous sacrifices. Both the Fengshan and Zhan rituals were conducted with the emperor personally leading the rites. The ceremonial attire was of yellow, and music accompanied the rituals. The mats used for the offerings were woven from the three-stemmed reed found in the Jianghuai region, and the soil for the sacrificial mounds was a mix of various earth and stones, covered with five-colored soil. The rare beasts and birds offered as sacrifices, including the white mountain chickens, were released back into the wild, representing an increase in ceremonial offerings compared to previous rituals. Wild animals such as rhinoceroses and elephants, which could not be returned to the wild, were offered at the foot of Mount Tai in a separate ceremony for the earth god. During the night after the ritual, a mysterious light appeared, and in the daytime, white clouds seemed to rise from the sacrificial mound.
After returning from the Zhan ritual, the emperor sat in the Ming Hall, where ministers took turns to offer congratulations, wishing the emperor a long and prosperous reign. The emperor then issued an edict, addressing the court officials: “I, a small and insignificant person, have inherited the supreme throne, and I am filled with fear, fearing that I may not be able to bear such a responsibility. Due to my lack of virtue and understanding of rites and music, I have endeavored to restore the grand ritual to honor Taiyi. During the ceremony, I witnessed a mysterious light and strange phenomena, and I feared that monstrous beings might appear. However, I was hesitant to stop the rites, as I did not want to offend the gods. Thus, I persevered and ascended Mount Tai to conduct the ceremony. Upon arriving at Liangfu, and later at Suran Mountain, I performed the Zhan ritual. I wish to renew my rule and start anew with the ministers. Therefore, I grant each hundred households one ox, ten bushels of wine, and two bolts of cloth to the elderly who are 80 years and above. The counties of Boxian, Fenggao, Sheqiu, and Licheng will be exempt from corvée labor and rent taxes for the year. A general amnesty is granted to all, with the specifics matching those of the amnesty edict issued on the day of Yimao. No one should commit the same offenses again. Any crimes committed prior to two years ago will not be penalized.”
Another edict followed: “In ancient times, the emperor would travel on a grand tour every five years, performing the ritual at Mount Tai. The feudal lords would also have places to stay and receive the emperor. Now, I command the feudal lords to build guesthouses and residences at the foot of Mount Tai.”
After the emperor had completed the Fengshan rituals without encountering any storms, many Taoists proclaimed that the gods of Mount Penglai would soon be visible. The emperor, hopeful, embarked on another journey to the sea, intending to seek the gods of Mount Penglai. However, his charioteer, Hou Zi, suddenly fell ill and died within a day. Only then did the emperor decide to depart. He traveled along the coast, heading north to Jieshi, and began inspecting the northern border, eventually reaching Jiuyuan County.
In May, the emperor returned to Ganquan Palace. The officials reported that the precious tripod had appeared, and the year name was set as Yuanding (the First Year of the Jade Tripod). This year’s Fengshan ceremony would officially be named Yuangong (the First Year of the Yuan Feng Era).
In the autumn of that year, a comet appeared in the Eastern Weaving constellation. Over ten days later, another comet appeared near the Three Altars. A man named Wang Shuo, skilled in observing celestial signs, reported, “When I observed the omen, I saw a star resembling a melon in size, which vanished within the time it takes to finish a meal.” Officials remarked, “His Majesty has established the ritual of enfeoffing and sacrificing to heaven in the Han Dynasty, and it seems that the appearance of the virtuous star is a divine response to this.”
The following winter, during the public sacrifice at the Five Emperors’ Temple in Yongcheng, after returning, the emperor paid homage and offered sacrifices to the god Taiyi. The ceremonial officer recited: “The virtuous star shines brightly, signaling prosperity. Moreover, the Longevity Star rises, casting a deep, radiant light. The Faithful Star’s glow is seen, and the emperor humbly venerates the god Taiyi, partaking in the offerings.”
That spring, Gong Sunqing claimed to have seen a divine being at Donglai Mountain and faintly heard the figure say, “I must see the Son of Heaven.” The emperor then journeyed to Guoshi City and appointed Gong Sunqing as a high official. They traveled to Donglai and stayed several days, yet saw nothing of the divine being. Some reported seeing the footprint of a great figure. The emperor sent out alchemists to search for immortals and gather spiritual herbs, with over a thousand people dispatched. The year was marked by a severe drought, and with the emperor already traveling, he used the excuse of seeking the gods’ favor for rain and performing rituals at Mount Tai. Upon returning, he reached Huzixian and personally blocked a river’s breach, staying for two days. After offering a solemn sacrifice to the river god, he departed. He ordered two senior ministers to lead soldiers in sealing the breach and redirecting the river’s course to restore the ancient works of Yu the Great.
At that time, the two Yue tribes had been subdued, and a Yue man named Yongzhi said, “The people of Yue believe in ghosts. During sacrifices, the spirits are often seen, and their manifestations are reliable. In the past, King Dong’ou lived to 160 years by revering the spirits. But later generations, neglecting the spirits, age quickly.” The emperor ordered that a temple for the Yue spirits be built, with a platform but no altar. Here, sacrifices to the gods and spirits would be made, using chicken divination to determine good or ill fortune. The emperor placed great trust in this, and from then on, Yue rituals and chicken divination spread throughout the land.
Gong Sunqing remarked, “The immortals can usually be seen, but the emperor’s hurried travels prevented him from noticing. Now, Your Majesty should build a tower like the one in Guoshi City, place offerings of dried meats and dates, and the divine beings should appear. Moreover, immortals prefer to dwell on high places.” The emperor commanded the construction of the Feilian and Gui Towers in Chang’an, and the Yishou and Yanshou Towers at Ganquan, where Gong Sunqing was given the imperial seal to oversee the offerings and await the arrival of the immortals. A platform to the heavens was also built, with ritual objects placed below to summon divine beings. At Ganquan Palace, a front hall was constructed, and various palaces were expanded. In the summer, Lingzhi mushrooms grew inside the Ganquan Palace. The emperor believed this to be a sign of divine favor due to his personal efforts in blocking the river and building the heavenly platform. He issued an edict saying, “A Lingzhi mushroom with nine stems has sprouted in the Ganquan Palace, and as a result, a general amnesty is granted, pardoning all who have committed minor offenses.”
The following year, the emperor sent an army to conquer Joseon. During the summer, a drought persisted. Gong Sunqing said, “In the time of the Yellow Emperor, a drought would always follow a sealing sacrifice, as heaven needs to dry out the sealed earth, which takes three years.” The emperor issued an edict: “The drought, it seems, is caused by heaven’s need to dry out the sealed earth. I now decree that all of the empire shall revere and offer sacrifices to the Lingxing (Virtuous Star).”
In the next year, the emperor performed a sacrifice in Yongcheng, opened the roads to and from Zhongzhou, and proceeded on a tour. In the spring, he arrived at Mingze, returning via Xihe County.
The following winter, the emperor inspected the southern regions, traveling to Jiangling and then eastward. He ascended Mount Tianzhu in Xuan County, which was known as the Southern Mount, and performed a sacrificial rite. He then traveled by boat along the Yangtze River, passing through Zongyang and crossing Pengli Lake, offering sacrifices at famous mountains and rivers along the way. He journeyed north to Langya, following the coastal route. In mid-April, he arrived at Fenggao County, where he restored the sealed earth of Mount Tai.
At the outset, the Emperor designated Mount Tai as the site for the grand sacrificial rites. To the northeast of Mount Tai lay the remains of an ancient Ming Hall, surrounded by rugged terrain and narrow space. The Emperor sought to build a new Ming Hall near Fenggao, but was uncertain about its design. Gong Wangdai from Jinan presented a drawing of the Ming Hall from the time of the Yellow Emperor. In the center of this hall was a main palace, open on all sides, covered with thatch. The hall was connected to water, which circled the perimeter of the palace. A secondary path was also constructed. The palace had an upper tower, with the southwestern path leading to the main hall, known as Kunlun Path. From here, the Emperor could enter the hall and perform his rituals to the Supreme Deity. Consequently, the Emperor commanded the construction of a Ming Hall by the Wen River in Fenggao, following the design provided by Gong Wangdai. By the fifth year of Yuanfeng, when the area was again undergoing repairs, sacrifices to Taiyi and the Five Emperors were conducted on the upper level of the hall. The divine seat for the High Emperor’s temple was positioned opposite them, while the lower level of the hall was used to offer sacrifices to the Earth Goddess, using twenty sacrificial oxen. The Emperor entered through the Kunlun Path and performed the rites, which followed the same rituals as the rural sacrifices. After completing the formalities, sacrificial fires were lit at the base of the hall. The Emperor then ascended Mount Tai, where he performed a secret ritual known only to a select few, unknown to outsiders. Sacrifices to the Five Emperors at the foot of the mountain were performed according to their respective positions, with the Yellow Emperor and the Red Emperor being worshiped together. During the ceremony, the attending officials assisted in the rites. Fires blazed atop the mountain, and flames were lit at various locations below to signal the corresponding sacrificial rites.
Two years later, on the first day of the lunar month, a Jiazi day which coincided with the winter solstice, those who studied the calendar calculated that this marked the beginning of the solar year. Thus, the Emperor personally traveled to the base of Mount Tai and performed a sacrificial rite to the Supreme Deity at the Ming Hall, though the full Fengshan ceremony was not carried out. The officiant chanted, “Heaven has granted the Emperor the Taichu calendar, an eternal cycle that repeats without end. The Emperor respectfully worships Taiyi.” The Emperor then journeyed eastward to the sea, consulting alchemists and other seekers of immortality, though no results were forthcoming. Despite this, he continued his efforts, sending more people in the hope of encountering the immortals.
On the day of Yiyou, a fire broke out in the Bai Liang Hall. On the first day of the twelfth month, the Emperor personally traveled to Gaoli to perform a ritual to the Earth Goddess. At the coast of Bohai, he performed an offering to the immortals of Penglai, hoping that one day he, too, would reach the realm of the immortals.
Upon returning to the capital, the Emperor, due to the fire at Bai Liang Hall, decided to receive reports from the provincial officials at Ganquan Palace, where they presented their accounts. Gongsun Qing remarked, “The Yellow Emperor built the Qingling Terrace, but it was destroyed by fire in just twelve days. The Yellow Emperor then built the Mingting, which became the Ganquan Palace.” Many alchemists believed that in ancient times, emperors had established capitals at Ganquan. Later, the Emperor received the feudal lords at Ganquan Palace and constructed their residences. The minister Yongzhi remarked, “In the Yue region, after a fire, the custom is to rebuild a house larger than the original in order to suppress and overcome the disaster.” Thus, the Emperor built the Jianzhang Palace, a grand complex with thousands of doors and gates. The front hall was even taller than the Weiyang Palace. To the east of Jianzhang, a Phoenix Tower was built, reaching more than twenty zhang in height. To the west was the Tang Zhong, an area of several dozen miles designated as a tiger reserve. To the north, a large pond was excavated, with a platform called the Taiyi Pool, rising more than twenty zhang. The pool featured islands named Penglai, Fangzhang, Yingzhou, and Hulian, representing the sacred mountains and mythical creatures of the sea. To the south, there were architectural structures such as the Jade Hall and the Bi Gate, along with statues of large birds. Additionally, a Divine Platform and a well tower, each fifty zhang high, were built, connected by a ceremonial road.
In the summer, the Han Dynasty reformed the calendar, setting the first month of the year as the official start of the new year. Yellow was regarded as the most prestigious color among the five elements. Seals bearing official titles were changed to include five characters, with the year designated as the first year of Taichu. That year, the Emperor launched a military campaign to the west against Dayuan, and locusts ravaged the land. Lady Ding, Luoyang’s Yu Chu, and others used mystical rites to pray and curse the Xiongnu and Dayuan.
The following year, the supervising officials reported that the five altars of Yongcheng lacked properly cooked sacrificial offerings, causing the scents of the sacrifices to be incomplete. In response, the Emperor ordered the sacrificial officials to provide the necessary cooking tools for the five altars, ensuring the sacrificial items were prepared according to the five elements. Wooden figurines were used to represent sacrificial horses, with real horses only being used for the May Horse Festival and the Emperor’s personal rural sacrifices. All other sacrifices to famous mountains and rivers were to use wooden horse figures, though real horses were employed for sacrifices when the Emperor passed by a region. Other ceremonial rites remained unchanged.
In the second year, the emperor traveled east on an inspection tour to the sea, where he inquired into the claims of Taoist priests regarding immortals and divine beings. However, none of their assertions were proven to be true. Some of the priests claimed, “During the reign of the Yellow Emperor, five cities and twelve towers were built to welcome and await the immortals, a practice known as Yingnian (Welcoming the Year).” The emperor, granting permission as they suggested, named the following year as Mingnian (Bright Year). The emperor himself personally conducted the sacrificial rites to the Supreme Deity.
The Duke of Gongwang remarked, “Although the Yellow Emperor performed sacrifices at Mount Tai, figures such as Feng Hou, Feng Ju, and Qi Bo all argued that the Yellow Emperor should conduct the sacrifice at Eastern Mount Tai, in conjunction with the celestial omens and mystical symbols, before achieving immortality.” After the emperor had ordered the preparation of the sacrificial implements, he arrived at Eastern Mount Tai and found that it was small and unremarkable, not living up to its reputation. He thus instructed the sacrificial officials to proceed with the rites, but decided not to conduct the grand sealing ceremony there. He later assigned the Duke of Gongwang to oversee the sacrifices at this location to await the immortals.
In the summer, the emperor returned to Mount Tai to perform the regular quinquennial (once every five years) sealing ritual, adding an additional ceremony at the Shilü (Stone Threshold) to honor the immortals. Shilü, located at the southern foot of Mount Tai, was believed by many Taoists to be the gateway to the residence of the immortals, and so the emperor personally performed the Zhan ritual there as well.
Five years later, the emperor returned to Mount Tai for the sealing ritual once more, and on his way back, he passed through Hengshan, where he also performed a sacrificial rite.
Under the new regulations established by the current dynasty, the emperor would personally conduct the sacrificial rites for Taiyi (the God of Heaven) and Houtu (the Earth Goddess) every three years. The imperial system of Fengshan (mountain sealing) established by the Han dynasty required that these rites be performed once every five years. The smaller, less auspicious shrines dedicated to Taiyi, as well as those to Sanyi, Mingyang, Mǎxíng (Horse Walking), Chixing (Red Star), and Wuchuang Mountain, were maintained by a team of ritual officials, including the high-ranking Taizhu (Chief Priest). These shrines were offered sacrifices according to the seasons. As for the other deities, such as the Eight Immortals and other divine shrines, the emperor would stop to perform the rites when passing by them, and cease the rituals when he departed. Shrines established on the advice of the Taoist priests were managed by the individuals who had proposed them, and upon their death, these shrines were abandoned, having no connection with the regular sacrificial officials. Other traditional rites were maintained as they had been throughout the ages.
From the time the emperor initiated the Fengshan rites, over the next twelve years, all Five Mountains and Four Rivers were honored with sacrificial rites, one by one. However, the Taoist priests who claimed to communicate with immortals and those who sought the gods of Mount Penglai across the seas ultimately failed to produce any concrete results. Those like Gong Sunqing, who claimed to have seen the immortals, could only offer the explanation of footprints as evidence, but nothing more substantial came to light. As a result, the emperor grew increasingly disillusioned with the fantastical and far-fetched claims of the Taoist priests, though he continued to engage with them, unwilling to sever ties, in the hope that he might eventually encounter a true practitioner of their art. In the years that followed, the Taoist priests continued to make more claims regarding immortals and rituals, yet the results were all too predictable.
The Grand Historian (Sima Qian) wrote: I accompanied the emperor on his inspections, participating in the rites dedicated to heaven, earth, and the mountains, and also took part in the sealing ceremonies. I entered the longevity palace to perform sacrificial rites and waited for the gods to speak. I closely examined and reflected upon the mindset and intentions of the sacrificial officials, and later, I reflected upon the history of the rituals to deities and spirits, encompassing both the external and internal aspects of these practices. This account serves as a guide for future generations of noble scholars to contemplate. As for the details concerning the offerings, the ceremonial vessels, and the protocols of presenting tribute, these are preserved in the official archives, and I shall not repeat them here.