Duke of Zhou, Ji Dan, was the younger brother of King Wu of Zhou. From the time of King Wen’s reign, Duke of Zhou had been extremely filial, loyal, and compassionate, surpassing all his brothers. When King Wu ascended the throne, Duke of Zhou frequently assisted him, handling many state affairs. In the ninth year of King Wu’s reign, he personally led an eastern campaign to Mengjin, with Duke of Zhou accompanying the army to provide support. In the eleventh year, when King Wu waged war against King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty, the army reached Muye, and Duke of Zhou assisted King Wu in issuing the famous “Mu Oath,” rallying the troops for battle. The Zhou forces broke through the capital of the Shang and entered King Zhou’s palace. After King Zhou’s death, Duke of Zhou, wielding a large axe and with the support of Shao Gong, who held a smaller axe, flanked King Wu on either side as they conducted the sacrificial rites at the Xi She altar, denouncing King Zhou’s crimes to the heavens and the Shang people. They also released Ji Zi from his confinement. Duke of Zhou then appointed Wu Geng, the son of King Zhou, to rule, with the assistance of Guan Shu and Cai Shu to continue the Shang ancestral sacrifices. The honors and lands were distributed among the meritorious ministers, family members, and relatives, with Duke of Zhou being granted the land of Shao Hao’s old domain in Qufu, which became the state of Lu. However, Duke of Zhou was not allowed to return to his fief and remained in the capital to continue advising King Wu.
The year following King Wu’s victory over King Zhou, the unification of the realm was not yet complete, and King Wu fell ill, causing great fear among his ministers. Duke of Zhou, together with Taigong Wang and Shao Gong, suggested consulting the heavens through divination to discern the outcome. Duke of Zhou spoke against troubling their late ancestors with worry, and thus he took it upon himself to offer a personal sacrifice. He set up three altars, facing north, and holding a jade disc and a ceremonial jade tablet, he prayed to the spirits of King Tai, King Ji, and King Wen, pledging to substitute King Wu in the event that the heavens decreed the latter unfit. He then ordered the official historian to record the prayer and, with the aid of the divination, the outcome was favorable. Upon hearing this, Duke of Zhou was overjoyed and assured King Wu that no misfortune would befall him, advising him to focus solely on the long-term stability of the Zhou dynasty.
When King Wu passed away and the young King Cheng was still in swaddling clothes, Duke of Zhou, fearing that news of King Wu’s death would lead to rebellion, took the throne temporarily to manage state affairs in place of the child king. Some ministers, such as Guan Shu and his brothers, spread rumors that Duke of Zhou meant to usurp the throne from King Cheng. In response, Duke of Zhou explained to Taigong Wang and Shao Gong that his actions were motivated solely by the desire to preserve the integrity of the Zhou dynasty and to ensure stability in the wake of King Wu’s early death. Duke of Zhou’s concern was for the future of the kingdom and the legacy of their late ancestors.
Duke of Zhou continued to assist King Cheng, instructing his son, Boqin, to take his place in Lu. He counseled Boqin to remain humble, despite being a direct descendant of King Wen and King Wu, and to avoid arrogance, as it would lead to the downfall of his family.
During this period, Guan Shu, Cai Shu, and Wu Geng led a rebellion with the Huaiyi people. Duke of Zhou, acting on the orders of King Cheng, raised an army and wrote the “Da Gao” decree. He executed Guan Shu and Wu Geng, exiled Cai Shu, and subdued the remnants of the Shang people, resettling them in various territories, including appointing Kang Shu to Wei and Wei Zi to Song, to carry out the Shang sacrificial rites. Within two years, Duke of Zhou successfully pacified the Huaiyi and other eastern regions. The feudal lords paid homage to the Zhou dynasty, and the heavens bestowed blessings upon Duke of Zhou, with a miraculous crop of two stalks growing from a single ear of millet, which was presented to King Cheng. King Cheng sent it to Duke of Zhou’s military encampment, and Duke of Zhou praised the blessings as a sign of the heavenly mandate.
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After the eastern regions were secured, Duke of Zhou returned to King Cheng and composed a poem, “Chī Xiāo,” which he presented to the young king. King Cheng, grateful for his uncle’s guidance, did not reproach him.
In the seventh year of King Cheng’s reign (539 BCE), King Cheng visited the Wu King’s temple at Haojing and then traveled to Fengjing to worship at the shrine of King Wen. He sent Shao Gong ahead to scout the land of Lu. In March, Duke of Zhou went to Lu to help construct the capital of the Zhou Dynasty, Luoyi, and after consulting with the heavens, he received a favorable omen and chose Luoyi as the capital.
As King Cheng matured and could manage state affairs, Duke of Zhou officially returned power to him, but Duke of Zhou continued to serve as a loyal minister. While serving as regent, Duke of Zhou had faced south to receive the feudal lords’ homage, but after returning the throne to King Cheng, he stood humbly and faced north, remaining as cautious and respectful as ever, always aware of the delicate balance of power.
When King Cheng was young, he fell ill. At that time, the Duke of Zhou cut his own fingernails and cast them into the river, praying to the gods, saying, “The king is young and lacks guidance, and it is I who have offended the divine will.” He also placed the written prayer in a secret vault. Miraculously, King Cheng recovered. Later, when King Cheng assumed the throne, some people spoke ill of the Duke of Zhou, causing him to flee to the state of Chu. Upon discovering the prayer written by the Duke of Zhou years ago, King Cheng was deeply moved and wept, and he immediately summoned the Duke of Zhou back to court.
After his return, the Duke of Zhou, fearing that King Cheng might be too young and prone to indulgence and misrule, wrote two important works: Duoshi (More Ministers) and Wuyi (Avoid Excess). Wuyi says: “Those who are parents must endure long periods of hardship to establish success, yet their descendants, in their pride and extravagance, forget the struggles of their ancestors and ruin the family business. Can a son not be cautious? Thus, in the past, King Zhong of the Yin dynasty, with solemn respect for the divine mandate, ruled with strictness and diligence, never indulging in leisure, which allowed him to rule for seventy-five years. King Gao of Yin, who labored among the people and lived humbly, led a life of mourning for three years after ascending the throne, speaking little but earning the support of the people, ruling for fifty-five years. King Zu Jia of Yin, recognizing his position as not the eldest son, lived among the common folk, understood their needs, and ruled for thirty-three years.” Duoshi states: “From Tang to Emperor Yi, the kings of the Yin dynasty followed the rites, dedicated themselves to virtue, and aligned with the will of Heaven. But when King Zhou of Yin came to power, he became deeply indulgent, disregarded the people’s will, and became widely despised, leading to his downfall.” The Duke of Zhou wrote these to admonish King Cheng.
King Cheng resided in Fengjing, and although the world had mostly been brought into order, the Zhou dynasty’s system of governance had not yet been properly organized. Therefore, the Duke of Zhou composed the Zhou Guan (Zhou Officials), delineating the responsibilities of the hundred officials, and also wrote Lizheng (Establishing Governance) to benefit the people, which was met with their joy.
The Duke of Zhou fell ill while in Fengjing, and on his deathbed, he said, “Please ensure that I am buried in Chengzhou, as a sign that I dare not leave King Cheng.” After his death, King Cheng, out of humility, ultimately decided to bury the Duke of Zhou in Bi, alongside King Wen, to show that he did not dare consider the Duke of Zhou as a subordinate. In the autumn of that year, after the Duke of Zhou’s death, a violent storm struck, flattening the crops and uprooting trees. The people of the capital were terrified. King Cheng and the ministers, dressed in their court robes, opened the golden seal scroll and read the document in which the Duke of Zhou had expressed his willingness to sacrifice himself for the late King Wu. The Duke of Taigong, Minister Zhao, and King Cheng asked the historians and relevant officials, who confirmed that it was true, but added that the Duke of Zhou had previously ordered them not to speak of it. King Cheng, holding the document, wept, saying, “We must no longer rely on augury! The Duke of Zhou worked tirelessly for the royal family, but I, as a young king, did not understand. Now, Heaven is showing its power to honor the virtue of the Duke of Zhou. I must offer sacrifices and welcome his spirit, in accordance with our country’s rites.” King Cheng then conducted a sacrificial ceremony to Heaven. Miraculously, it rained, the winds reversed, and the fallen crops stood upright again. The Duke of Taigong and Minister Zhao instructed the people to support the fallen trees and strengthen their roots. That year, there was a bountiful harvest. As a result, King Cheng granted the state of Lu the right to conduct similar sacrificial rites to Heaven and to the spirit of King Wen. The state of Lu’s rituals, which resembled those of the Zhou royal family, were a tribute to the Duke of Zhou’s virtue.
When the Duke of Zhou died, his son, Boqin, had already been granted a fief in Lu, becoming the Duke of Lu. Duke Boqin initially moved to Lu, but it was three years before he reported to the Duke of Zhou on his governance. The Duke of Zhou asked, “Why the delay?” Boqin responded, “I had to change the customs and rituals, and could not see results until the mourning period was over, so I was late.” Taigong, who had been granted a fief in Qi, reported on his governance after just five months. The Duke of Zhou asked, “Why so soon?” Taigong replied, “I simplified the rituals between the ruler and the ministers and followed the local customs.” Later, when Taigong learned of Boqin’s delay in reporting, he sighed, saying, “Alas, the descendants of Lu will eventually serve Qi as ministers. If governance is not simple and approachable, the people will not be close to it. When the government’s policies are clear and accessible to the people, they will naturally follow.”
After Boqin’s reign, rebellions broke out in the states of Guan and Cai, and the Huiyi and Xurong tribes also revolted. Boqin led his army to the city of Bi to quell the uprisings, writing the Bi Oath, which stated: “Prepare your battle armor and helmets, and make sure they are in good condition. Do not destroy the cattle pens or horse stables. If cattle, horses, or slaves go missing, soldiers must not leave their posts to pursue them. If others’ livestock or slaves arrive at your location, they must be returned. Do not loot, do not steal from homes. The people in the western, southern, and northern suburbs of Lu must prepare food and supplies, and nothing should be missing. On the day of Jiaxu, we will fortify our position and march against the Xurong. If anyone is absent, they will face severe punishment.” After issuing the Bi Oath, Boqin successfully defeated the Xurong and restored peace to Lu.
After Duke Boqin’s death, his son, Duke Kao, succeeded him. Duke Kao ruled for four years before his death, and his younger brother, Duke Xi, succeeded him, becoming Duke Yang. Duke Yang built the Maque palaces. After six years, Duke Yang passed away, and his son, Duke You, succeeded him. After fourteen years, Duke You’s younger brother, Duke Bi, killed him and declared himself ruler, taking the title of Duke Wei. Duke Wei ruled for fifty years before passing away, and his son, Duke Li, succeeded him. Duke Li ruled for thirty-seven years before his death, and the people of Lu installed his younger brother, Duke Ju, as the new ruler, who became Duke Xian. Duke Xian ruled for thirty-two years before passing away, and his son, Duke Zhen, succeeded him as Duke Pi.
In the 14th year of Duke Zhen’s reign (841 BCE), King Li of Zhou ruled unjustly and fled to the city of Zhi. Duke of Zhou and Shao Gong assumed joint rule. In the 29th year (827 BCE), King Xuan of Zhou ascended the throne.
In the 30th year (826 BCE), Duke Zhen passed away, and his younger brother, Ao, succeeded him, becoming Duke Wu.
In the 9th year of Duke Wu’s reign (817 BCE), during the spring, Duke Wu, accompanied by his eldest son, Kuo, and his younger son, Xi, traveled west to pay homage to King Xuan of Zhou. King Xuan took a liking to Xi and considered making him the heir to the state of Lu. However, the Zhou official Fan Zhongshan advised against this, saying, “It is against the principles of propriety to disinherit the elder son in favor of the younger. Such an action would violate the commands of the previous kings, and to violate their commands would bring punishment. If this order is difficult to implement, the laws will lose their authority, and if the order is executed despite its impropriety, the people will not obey. The principle of propriety requires that the younger serve the elder, and the vassals must follow the established traditions. If you, as the Son of Heaven, install the younger son as the successor, the people will follow suit, disregarding propriety. If Lu follows this order, the legacy of the previous kings will be obstructed, and if they refuse, you will be in conflict with your own royal mandate.” King Xuan, however, ignored this counsel and appointed Xi as the heir of Lu. Upon Duke Wu’s return to Lu in the summer, he passed away, and Xi succeeded him as Duke Yi.
In the 9th year of Duke Yi’s reign (807 BCE), the son of Duke Yi’s brother, Kuo, named Bo Yu, along with the people of Lu, conspired to assassinate Duke Yi and appointed Bo Yu as the new prime minister of Lu. Bo Yu ruled for 11 years until King Xuan of Zhou attacked Lu, killing Bo Yu and seeking to find someone from the Lu royal family capable of instructing the vassals. Fan Muzhong suggested that Cheng, the younger brother of Duke Yi, be installed as the ruler of Lu due to his reverence for the ancestors, respect for elders, and adherence to tradition. King Xuan agreed and appointed Cheng as Duke Xiao of Lu. After this, many vassals began to rebel against the royal command. In the 25th year of Duke Xiao’s reign (771 BCE), the vassals rebelled against the Zhou dynasty, and the Quanrong people killed King You of Zhou. The state of Qin began to be recognized as a vassal.
In the 27th year (769 BCE), Duke Xiao died, and his son, Fu Huang, succeeded him, becoming Duke Hui.
In the 30th year of Duke Hui’s reign (739 BCE), the people of Jin assassinated their ruler, Duke Zhao. In the 45th year (724 BCE), the people of Jin again assassinated Duke Xiao.
In the 46th year (723 BCE), Duke Hui died. His eldest illegitimate son, Xi, took charge of the state’s affairs, becoming Duke Yin. Duke Hui had no sons with his legitimate wife, but his concubine Sheng Zi bore Xi. When Xi grew up, Duke Hui arranged for him to marry a woman from the state of Song. Upon her arrival in Lu, Duke Hui found her beautiful and took her as his own wife, elevating her to the position of his primary consort and making their son, Yun, the crown prince. Upon Duke Hui’s death, because Yun was still very young, the people of Lu collectively agreed to let Xi handle the governance, but did not allow him to officially assume the throne.
In the 5th year of Duke Yin’s reign (781 BCE), he visited Tang to observe the fishing there. In the 8th year (715 BCE), he exchanged land granted by the Son of Heaven, including the Feng and Xu fields, with the state of Zheng, which was later criticized by nobles.
In the 11th year (712 BCE), during winter, Prince Hui flattered Duke Yin, saying, “The people believe it would be in their best interest for you to formally assume the throne. I request that you kill Crown Prince Yun and let me become the prime minister.” Duke Yin responded, “My predecessor, Duke Hui, had a mandate that I act as regent only because Yun is too young. Now that he has matured, I am preparing for my retirement and will pass the state leadership to him.” However, Prince Hui, fearing that Yun would retaliate, slandered Duke Yin to Yun, falsely claiming that Duke Yin sought to become the ruler and eliminate Yun. Yun, believing this, agreed to have Duke Yin killed. In November, while Duke Yin was preparing to offer sacrifices at the shrine of the deity Zhong Wu in the sacrificial fields, Prince Hui sent men to kill him at the home of the Wei family, and Yun was made Duke of Lu, known as Duke Huan.
In the first year of Duke Huan’s reign (711 BCE), the state of Zheng exchanged jade discs for the land granted to Lu by the Son of Heaven. In the second year (710 BCE), Duke Huan ordered that a tripod, a gift from the state of Song, be placed in the royal ancestral temple, an act that was also criticized by the nobles.
In the 3rd year (709 BCE), the Duke sent his son Hui to Qi to marry a woman from Qi, who became the consort of Duke Huan of Qi. In the 6th year (706 BCE), the consort gave birth to a son, and since the child’s birthdate coincided with that of Duke Huan, the boy was named “Tong” (meaning “same”). As Tong grew up, he was named crown prince.
In the 16th year (696 BCE), Duke Huan of Qi held an alliance meeting with the other lords in the state of Cao, where they decided to attack the state of Zheng and restore Duke Li of Zheng to the throne.
In the 18th year (694 BCE), during the spring, Duke Huan planned a trip to Qi and intended to travel with his consort. However, Minister Shen Xu advised against it, warning him, but Duke Huan disregarded his counsel and proceeded with the journey. Once in Qi, Duke Huan’s consort had an affair with Duke Xiang of Qi. Upon learning of this, Duke Huan became furious and reprimanded his wife. The consort, in turn, told Duke Xiang of Huan’s anger. In the fourth month, on the day of Bingzi, Duke Xiang of Qi hosted a banquet for Duke Huan. After Duke Huan became intoxicated, Duke Xiang ordered his son, Peng Sheng, to restrain Duke Huan and then instructed him to break Duke Huan’s ribs, resulting in Duke Huan’s death in the carriage. The people of Lu, fearing the wrath of Qi, sent a message to the people of Qi, saying, “Our ruler, in awe of your power, dared not remain in peace. He traveled to Qi to perform rites of friendship between our states. Since the rites were completed but our ruler has not returned, we cannot hold anyone accountable, but we ask for the death of Peng Sheng to clear our name before the other lords.” The people of Qi killed Peng Sheng to appease Lu. The people of Lu then installed Prince Tong as their ruler, who became Duke Zhuang. The consort of Duke Huan, now the mother of Duke Zhuang, remained in Qi, too afraid to return to Lu.
In the 5th year of Duke Zhuang’s reign (689 BCE), he led an army to support Duke Hui of Wei in returning to the throne.
In the 8th year (686 BCE), Duke Xi of Qi fled to Lu. In the 9th year (685 BCE), Lu considered sending an army to escort Duke Xi back to Qi, but it was too late. Duke Huan of Qi sent troops to attack Lu, and facing imminent danger, the Lu state was forced to kill Duke Xi. His minister, Zhao Hu, also perished. The people of Qi informed Lu of their demand for the release of Guan Zhong. The people of Lu, led by Minister Shi Bo, said, “Qi does not wish to kill him, but to employ him. If employed, he will become a great threat to Lu. It is better to kill Guan Zhong and send his body to Qi.” Duke Zhuang refused and escorted Guan Zhong to Qi. The people of Qi made Guan Zhong their prime minister.
In the 13th year (681 BCE), Duke Zhuang of Lu, along with Minister Cao Mo, met with Duke Huan of Qi in the land of Ke to discuss an alliance. Cao Mo kidnapped Duke Huan by force, demanding the return of land that Qi had previously taken from Lu. After swearing an oath, Duke Huan was released. Duke Huan, intending to break the oath, was persuaded by Guan Zhong to return the land to Lu.
In the 15th year (679 BCE), Duke Huan began to assert his dominance among the feudal lords. In the 23rd year (671 BCE), Duke Zhuang traveled to Qi to observe the state’s ancestral sacrifices. In the 32nd year (662 BCE), Duke Zhuang built a pavilion overlooking the residence of the Dang family. There, he saw Meng Nu, the eldest daughter of the family, and became greatly enamored with her. He promised to make her his consort and swore an oath by cutting his arm. Meng Nu later gave birth to a son, Ban. As Ban grew older, he became fond of the daughter of the Liang family and visited her home. A stableman named Luo mocked the Liang daughter from outside the wall. Ban became enraged and struck Luo. Duke Zhuang, hearing of the incident, said, “Luo is strong and should be killed; he cannot simply be beaten and let go.” However, Ban did not manage to kill Luo, as Duke Zhuang fell ill. Duke Zhuang had three younger brothers: Qingfu, Shuye, and Jiyou. Duke Zhuang married a woman from Qi, named Ai Jiang, who bore no children. Ai Jiang’s sister, named Shu Jiang, bore a son named Kai. Duke Zhuang favored Meng Nu and wanted to make Ban the crown prince. As Duke Zhuang fell ill, he asked his younger brother, Shuye, who would succeed him. Shuye responded, “It is customary in Lu that a son succeeds his father and a younger brother succeeds his elder brother. There is Qingfu, who could be the heir. Why worry?” Duke Zhuang disliked the idea of Shuye wanting to make Qingfu the heir and asked his younger brother, Jiyou. Jiyou said, “Even if I die, I would still choose Ban as the ruler.” Duke Zhuang said, “Earlier, Shuye wanted to establish Qingfu; what should be done now?” Jiyou then ordered Shuye to wait at the house of the Zhen Wu family and sent Zhen Ji to force Shuye to drink poison, telling him, “If you drink this, your descendants will be spared; otherwise, you will die, and so will your descendants.” Shuye drank the poison and died. The people of Lu installed Shuye’s son as the new ruler. In the eighth month, on the day of Guihai, Duke Zhuang passed away, and Jiyou finally made Ban the ruler, in accordance with Duke Zhuang’s will. Ban, still in mourning, stayed at the Dang family’s residence.
At the time, Qingfu had an affair with Ai Jiang, and Qingfu wanted to establish Ai Jiang’s sister’s son, Kai, as the ruler. After Duke Zhuang’s death, Jiyou made Ban the ruler. On the 10th month, on the day of Jiwei, Qingfu sent his servant, Luo, to the Dang family to kill Duke Ban. Jiyou fled to the state of Chen. Qingfu eventually made Kai, Duke Zhuang’s son, the ruler, taking the title of Duke Min.
In the second year of Duke Min’s reign (660 BCE), Qingfu’s affair with Ai Jiang intensified. Ai Jiang and Qingfu conspired to kill Duke Min and make Qingfu the ruler of Lu. Qingfu sent an assassin named Bu Yi to kill Duke Min at the palace. Jiyou, hearing of this, went to the state of Chen with Duke Min’s brother, Shen, to seek the people of Lu’s support to install Shen as the ruler. The people of Lu wanted to kill Qingfu, but he fled to Ju. Jiyou then supported Shen, bringing him back to Lu, where he was installed as the new ruler, Duke Xi. Duke Xi was also a younger son of Duke Zhuang. Ai Jiang, fearing for her safety, fled to Zhu. Jiyou sent gifts to Ju, demanding the return of Qingfu, who was sent back. Jiyou had Qingfu killed, and Qingfu, pleading for permission to go into exile, was denied. Jiyou sent Minister Xisi to inform Qingfu, and hearing Xisi’s weeping, Qingfu realized he had no choice but to commit suicide. Upon hearing of Ai Jiang’s and Qingfu’s corrupt relationship that had harmed the state of Lu, Duke Huan of Qi summoned Ai Jiang back from Zhu and had her killed, sending her body back to Lu, where it was displayed as a public example. Duke Xi of Lu later buried Ai Jiang after begging for clemency.
In the 14th year of Duke Zhen’s reign (841 BCE), King Li of Zhou ruled unjustly and fled to the city of Zhi. Duke of Zhou and Shao Gong jointly assumed governance. In the 29th year (827 BCE), King Xuan of Zhou ascended to the throne.
In the 30th year (826 BCE), Duke Zhen passed away, and his younger brother Ao succeeded him, becoming Duke Wu.
In the 9th year of Duke Wu’s reign (817 BCE), during the spring, Duke Wu, accompanied by his eldest son Kuo and his younger son Xi, traveled west to pay respects to King Xuan of Zhou. King Xuan took a liking to Xi and considered making him the heir to the state of Lu. However, the Zhou official Fan Zhongshan advised against this, stating, “It is improper to disinherit the elder son in favor of the younger. Such an action would violate the commands of the previous kings, and violating those commands would lead to punishment. If this order is difficult to execute, the laws will lose their authority, and if the order is executed despite its impropriety, the people will not follow. The principle of propriety requires that the younger serve the elder, and vassals must adhere to the established traditions. If you, as the Son of Heaven, establish the younger son as heir, the people will follow suit, disregarding propriety. If Lu follows this order, the legacy of the previous kings will be obstructed, and if they refuse, it would be a direct challenge to your royal mandate.” King Xuan, however, ignored this counsel and appointed Xi as the heir of Lu. Upon Duke Wu’s return to Lu in the summer, he passed away, and Xi succeeded him, becoming Duke Yi.
In the 9th year of Duke Yi’s reign (807 BCE), the son of Duke Yi’s brother Kuo, named Bo Yu, conspired with the people of Lu to assassinate Duke Yi and appointed Bo Yu as the new prime minister of Lu. Bo Yu ruled for 11 years until King Xuan of Zhou attacked Lu, killing Bo Yu and seeking to find someone from the Lu royal family capable of instructing the vassals. Fan Muzhong suggested that Cheng, Duke Yi’s younger brother, be installed as the ruler of Lu due to his reverence for the ancestors, respect for elders, and adherence to tradition. King Xuan agreed and appointed Cheng as Duke Xiao of Lu. After this, many vassals began to rebel against the royal command. In the 25th year of Duke Xiao’s reign (771 BCE), the vassals rebelled against the Zhou dynasty, and the Quanrong people killed King You of Zhou. The state of Qin began to be recognized as a vassal.
In the 27th year (769 BCE), Duke Xiao died, and his son, Fu Huang, succeeded him, becoming Duke Hui.
In the 30th year of Duke Hui’s reign (739 BCE), the people of Jin assassinated their ruler, Duke Zhao. In the 45th year (724 BCE), the people of Jin again assassinated Duke Xiao.
In the 46th year (723 BCE), Duke Hui died. His eldest illegitimate son, Xi, took charge of the state’s affairs, becoming Duke Yin. Duke Hui had no sons with his legitimate wife, but his concubine Sheng Zi bore Xi. When Xi grew up, Duke Hui arranged for him to marry a woman from the state of Song. Upon her arrival in Lu, Duke Hui found her beautiful and took her as his own wife, elevating her to the position of his primary consort and making their son, Yun, the crown prince. Upon Duke Hui’s death, because Yun was still very young, the people of Lu collectively agreed to let Xi handle the governance, but did not allow him to officially assume the throne.
In the 5th year of Duke Yin’s reign (781 BCE), he visited Tang to observe the fishing there. In the 8th year (715 BCE), he exchanged land granted by the Son of Heaven, including the Feng and Xu fields, with the state of Zheng, which was later criticized by nobles.
In the 11th year (712 BCE), during winter, Prince Hui flattered Duke Yin, saying, “The people believe it would be in their best interest for you to formally assume the throne. I request that you kill Crown Prince Yun and let me become the prime minister.” Duke Yin responded, “My predecessor, Duke Hui, had a mandate that I act as regent only because Yun is too young. Now that he has matured, I am preparing for my retirement and will pass the state leadership to him.” However, Prince Hui, fearing that Yun would retaliate, slandered Duke Yin to Yun, falsely claiming that Duke Yin sought to become the ruler and eliminate Yun. Yun, believing this, agreed to have Duke Yin killed. In November, while Duke Yin was preparing to offer sacrifices at the shrine of the deity Zhong Wu in the sacrificial fields, Prince Hui sent men to kill him at the home of the Wei family, and Yun was made Duke of Lu, known as Duke Huan.
In the first year of Duke Huan’s reign (711 BCE), the state of Zheng exchanged jade discs for the land granted to Lu by the Son of Heaven. In the second year (710 BCE), Duke Huan ordered that a tripod, a gift from the state of Song, be placed in the royal ancestral temple, an act that was also criticized by the nobles.
In the 1st year of Duke Xiang’s reign (572 BCE), the state of Jin installed Duke Dao as their ruler. The previous winter, the Jin minister, Luan Shu, had killed his ruler, Duke Li.
In the 4th year (569 BCE), Duke Xiang traveled to Jin to attend a court meeting.
In the 5th year (568 BCE), Ji Wenzi passed away. His household had no concubines dressed in silk, no horses fed with grain in the stables, and no precious metalware in the estate. Such was his austerity as he served as the prime minister of three successive rulers. The wise men said, “Ji Wenzi truly embodied honesty, loyalty, and integrity.”
In the 9th year (564 BCE), the states of Lu and Jin launched a joint military campaign against Zheng. Duke Dao of Jin held a coronation ceremony for Duke Xiang in the state of Wei, where Ji Wenzi assisted in organizing the rites.
In the 11th year (562 BCE), the three powerful clans of the Huan family controlled the three military divisions of Lu.
In the 12th year (561 BCE), Duke Xiang attended a court meeting in Jin. In the 16th year (557 BCE), Duke Ping of Jin ascended to the throne. In the 21st year (552 BCE), Duke Xiang again attended a court meeting in Jin.
In the 22nd year (551 BCE), Confucius, also known as Kong Qiu, was born.
In the 25th year (548 BCE), the minister Cui Zhu of Qi killed his ruler, Duke Zhuang, and installed Duke Zhuang’s younger brother, Duke Jing, as the new ruler.
In the 29th year (544 BCE), the statesman from Yanling, Ji Zi, was sent on a diplomatic mission to the state of Lu. He observed the music of the Zhou court and was able to fully interpret its meanings, which earned him great respect from the people of Lu.
In the 31st year (542 BCE), in the 6th month, Duke Xiang passed away. In September of the same year, his son, the crown prince, also died. The people of Lu then installed the son of Duke Xiang’s consort’s younger sister, a boy named Chou, as the new ruler, who became Duke Zhao.
Duke Zhao, at the age of 19, was still immature and mischievous. Mu Shu did not want to appoint him and argued, “Since the crown prince has died, there is another son of the same mother who can succeed the throne. If there is no such son, then the eldest son among the secondary wives should be chosen. If their ages are the same, their abilities must be evaluated; if their abilities are the same, divination must decide. However, Chou is not the legitimate son, and he did not show any sorrow during the mourning period. Instead, he seemed to have a joyful expression. If he is truly made ruler, it will surely cause trouble for the Ji family.” Ji Wenzi ignored the advice and ultimately installed Chou as the ruler. When Duke Xiang was buried, Chou had already ruined three mourning garments due to his mischievous behavior. The wise men said, “This person will not end well.”
In the 3rd year of Duke Zhao’s reign (539 BCE), he traveled to Jin to pay tribute. When he reached the Yellow River, Duke Ping of Jin politely refused to meet him and asked Duke Zhao to return, which the people of Lu considered a great disgrace. In the 4th year (538 BCE), King Ling of Chu called for a meeting of the feudal lords at Shen, but Duke Zhao claimed illness and did not attend. In the 7th year (535 BCE), Ji Wenzi passed away. In the 8th year (534 BCE), King Ling of Chu built the Zhanghua Platform and summoned Duke Zhao. Duke Zhao went to offer congratulations, but King Ling gave him a valuable gift and later took it back, changing his mind. In the 12th year (530 BCE), Duke Zhao again traveled to Jin to attend a court meeting, reaching the Yellow River, but Duke Ping of Jin again politely declined, and Duke Zhao returned. In the 13th year (529 BCE), the crown prince of Chu, Chi Ji, killed King Ling and declared himself the new ruler of Chu. In the 15th year (527 BCE), Duke Zhao visited Jin and was left behind by the Jin court to accompany Duke Zhao of Jin on his funeral procession, a great disgrace for the people of Lu. In the 20th year (522 BCE), Duke Jing of Qi, accompanied by Yan Zi, toured the borders, and on the way, they stopped in Lu to inquire about the local rituals. In the 21st year (521 BCE), Duke Zhao visited Jin once again, reaching the Yellow River, but once more, Duke Ping of Jin declined the meeting, and Duke Zhao returned.
In the 25th year (517 BCE) of Duke Zhao’s reign, during the spring, a species of quail bird arrived in Lu and began nesting there. Minister Shi Ji commented, “There is a popular saying: ‘When quail come to nest in Lu, the ruler will depart for the Qian Hou,’ meaning that the ruler will soon leave the capital for the wilderness.”
The Ji family and the Hou family had a dispute over cockfighting. The Ji family equipped their chickens with armor, while the Hou family put metal claws on theirs. In a fit of anger, Ji Pingzi attacked the Hou family. The Hou family, in turn, became furious with Ji Pingzi. Zang Zhaobo’s younger brother, Zang Hui, once forged a false accusation against the Zang family, later hiding in the Ji family’s household. Zang Zhaobo consequently imprisoned members of the Ji family. Ji Pingzi, enraged, imprisoned Zang family servants. The Hou and Zang families went to Duke Zhao with their grievances. In the 9th month, on the day of Wuxu, Duke Zhao launched an attack on the Ji family, entering their residence. Ji Pingzi climbed onto the platform to plead, saying, “You have listened to slanders and failed to investigate the extent of my faults. You are now punishing me; please allow me to move to Yishang.” Duke Zhao refused to answer. Ji Pingzi then requested to be imprisoned in Yi, but this too was denied. He then asked to be allowed to leave with five carriages of belongings, but Duke Zhao still did not comply. Ziji, a member of Ji Pingzi’s household, said, “You must allow him. The Ji family has been in power for a long time, with many followers. They will likely conspire against you.” Duke Zhao did not listen. The Hou family insisted, “Ji Pingzi must be killed.” Shusun, a servant in the family of the Shusun clan, asked his followers, “Is it more beneficial for us if the Ji family is destroyed or if they remain?” Everyone answered, “Without the Ji family, the Shusun family cannot survive.” Shusun replied, “Right, let us rescue the Ji family immediately.” They then defeated Duke Zhao’s army. Meng Yizi, hearing of the victory, also killed Hou Zhaobo. Hou Zhaobo, at the time, had been dispatched by Duke Zhao as a diplomatic envoy to the Meng family, but the Meng family captured him. The Meng, Shusun, and Ji families jointly rebelled against Duke Zhao, forcing him to flee. On the day of Jihai, Duke Zhao arrived in Qi. Duke Jing of Qi said, “I will provide you with 25,000 households and land to accommodate you.” Ziji replied, “How can we abandon the legacy of the Duke of Zhou and become subjects of Qi?” Duke Zhao declined the offer. Ziji then said, “Since Duke Jing of Qi does not keep his word, it would be better to go to Jin.” Duke Zhao did not agree. When Shusun heard that Duke Zhao had returned, he went to see Ji Pingzi, who kowtowed and expressed his shame. At first, they intended to bring Duke Zhao back, but after a change of heart by Meng Sun and Ji Sun, they abandoned the plan.
Spring of 516 BCE: Qi’s Campaign Against Lu and the Reoccupation of Yunyi
In the spring of 516 BCE, Qi launched a military campaign against Lu, capturing Yunyi and forcing Duke Zhao of Lu to reside there. In the summer, Duke Jing of Qi contemplated escorting Duke Zhao back to Lu by force, commanding his subordinates not to accept any gifts from the state of Lu. Two prominent Lu officials, Shen Feng and Ru Jia, offered Qi’s officials, led by Gao Ge and Zi Jiang, 80,000 bushels of grain in exchange for their cooperation. Zi Jiang spoke to Duke Jing, saying, “The officials of Lu are defying their ruler, which is an unusual occurrence. When Duke Yuan of Song went to Jin to seek aid for Duke Zhao of Lu, he died on the journey. When Duke Shusun of Lu requested Duke Zhao’s return to Lu, he died suddenly without any apparent illness. Is it that Heaven has abandoned him, or has he angered the spirits? Perhaps we should wait and see.” Duke Jing of Qi heeded his advice.
28th Year (514 BCE): Duke Zhao’s Plea to Jin for Assistance
In 514 BCE, Duke Zhao of Lu traveled to Jin, seeking support to return to his homeland and reclaim his rule. Ji Pingzi bribed the six top ministers of Jin, who accepted the gifts and advised the Jin ruler to refrain from pressing the issue, leading to the decision that Duke Zhao would only be allowed to stay in Qianhou. In the 29th year (513 BCE), Duke Zhao arrived at Yunyi. Duke Jing of Qi sent a message calling him “the ruler,” which Duke Zhao found insulting. In a fit of anger, he moved once again to Qianhou.
31st Year (511 BCE): Jin’s Failed Attempt to Support Duke Zhao
In the 31st year (511 BCE), the people of Jin sought to support Duke Zhao’s return to Lu and summoned Ji Pingzi. Ji Pingzi, dressed in simple cloth and barefoot, went to apologize through the six ministers. The ministers spoke on his behalf, saying, “While Jin may support Duke Zhao, the people of Lu do not want him.” The Jin ruler consequently abandoned the effort.
32nd Year (510 BCE): Duke Zhao’s Death in Exile
In the 32nd year (510 BCE), Duke Zhao of Lu died in Qianhou. The people of Lu then installed his younger brother, Duke Ding, as the new ruler.
Duke Ding’s Ascension: Reflections on Ji Clan’s Power
When Duke Ding ascended the throne, Zhao Jianzi asked the historian Shi Mo, “Will the Ji family be overthrown?” Shi Mo replied, “No. Ji You made great contributions to the state of Lu and was enfeoffed in the prestigious position of the highest minister. From Ji Wenzi to Ji Wuzi, the family’s power grew across generations. When Duke Wen of Lu passed away, the East Gate clan overthrew the legitimate heirs and installed a cadet branch, usurping the ruler’s authority. Power was thus placed in the hands of the Ji family, and it has endured through four generations. The people do not know who their true ruler is; how can such a ruler control the state? Therefore, a ruler must be cautious in upholding rituals, titles, and ranks, and not allow others to seize power.”
5th Year (505 BCE): Death of Ji Pingzi and the Rise of Yang Hu
In the 5th year (505 BCE), Ji Pingzi died. Yang Hu, driven by personal grievances, imprisoned Ji Huanzi. However, after Ji Huanzi negotiated a pact with him, he was released. In the 7th year (503 BCE), Qi attacked Lu and occupied Yunyi, with Yang Hu residing there as his fief, overseeing local affairs. In the 8th year (502 BCE), Yang Hu sought to kill all of the legitimate heirs of the Ji family and replace them with his close allies. Yang Hu sent a carriage to capture Ji Huanzi with the intention of executing him, but Ji Huanzi escaped by using his wits. The three prominent families of Lu then joined forces to attack Yang Hu, who fled to Yangguan.
9th Year (501 BCE): Lu’s Military Campaign Against Yang Hu
In the 9th year (501 BCE), Lu launched a military campaign against Yang Hu, who fled to Qi and then to the Zhao family in Jin.
10th Year (500 BCE): Meeting Between Duke Ding and Duke Jing
In the 10th year (500 BCE), Duke Ding of Lu and Duke Jing of Qi met at Jiagu, with Confucius presiding over the ceremony. The people of Qi considered attacking Duke Ding, but Confucius ascended the steps according to the proper ritual, reprimanding the musicians from Qi for playing indulgent music. Duke Jing, frightened, refrained from attacking Duke Ding and returned the land he had previously seized from Lu as an apology.
12th Year (498 BCE): Conflicts Over the Three Clans
In the 12th year (498 BCE), Duke Ding sent Zhong You to dismantle the walls of the Three Clans and confiscate their weapons and armor. The Meng family refused to demolish their fortifications, so Duke Ding sent troops to attack, but was unable to defeat them and eventually relented. Ji Huanzi accepted the beautiful musicians and entertainers from Qi, causing Confucius to leave Lu.
15th Year (495 BCE): Death of Duke Ding and Succession by His Son
In the 15th year (495 BCE), Duke Ding passed away, and his son succeeded him as Duke Ai.
5th Year of Duke Ai (490 BCE): Death of Duke Jing of Qi
In the 5th year (490 BCE) of Duke Ai’s reign, Duke Jing of Qi died.
6th Year (489 BCE): Assassination of Qi’s Ruler
In the 6th year (489 BCE), Qi official Tian Qi assassinated his ruler, Prince Ruzi.
7th Year (488 BCE): Wu’s Strength and Qi’s Submission
In the 7th year (488 BCE), King Fuchai of Wu, at the height of his power, launched an attack on Qi and reached the Zeng region. He demanded 100 head of cattle, sheep, and pigs from Lu. Ji Kangzi sent Zi Gong to persuade King Fuchai and his chief minister, Ji, to abide by proper rituals. King Fuchai responded, “We are tattooed barbarians; it is not fitting for us to be asked to follow rituals,” and ceased his demands.
In the 8th year (487 BCE), the state of Wu attacked the state of Lu on behalf of the state of Zou. They reached the city, made a treaty with Lu, and then withdrew. The state of Qi then attacked Lu and seized three cities. In the 10th year (485 BCE), Lu retaliated by launching an attack on the southern border of Qi. In the 11th year (484 BCE), Qi again attacked Lu. During this time, the Ji family employed Ran You, who achieved significant success. As a result, they longed for Confucius, who returned to the state of Lu to resume his duties.
In the 14th year (481 BCE), the Qi minister Tian Chang assassinated the Qi ruler, Duke Jian, in Xuzhou. Confucius urged Duke Ai to send forces to punish Tian Chang, but Duke Ai refused. In the 15th year (480 BCE), Duke Ai sent Zifu Jingbo as an envoy, with Zigong as his assistant, to the state of Qi. Qi agreed to return the land it had occupied in Lu. Tian Chang, initially the prime minister of Qi, sought to foster good relations with the vassals, which is why he took these actions.
In the 16th year (479 BCE), Confucius passed away.
In the 22nd year (473 BCE), King Goujian of Yue defeated King Fuchai of Wu.
In the 27th year (468 BCE), in the spring, Ji Kangzi died. In the summer, Duke Ai, fearing the growing power of the Three Huan families, sought to use the support of other vassals to counterbalance them. The Three Huan families, in turn, feared that Duke Ai would rebel, and this created a deep rift between the ruler and his ministers. One day, Duke Ai went to the Lingban region for a recreational trip, where he met with Meng Wubo. Duke Ai asked, “Can you tell me if I will have a peaceful end?” Meng Wubo replied, “I do not know.” Duke Ai considered seeking the aid of the state of Yue to attack the Three Huan families. In August, he went to the home of the Xing family. The Three Huan families launched an attack on Duke Ai, who fled to the state of Wei, then left Wei for Zou, and eventually sought refuge in Yue. The people of Lu eventually welcomed Duke Ai back, and he died in the house of the You Mountain family. His son Ning succeeded him, becoming Duke Dao.
During Duke Dao’s reign, the power of the Three Huan families continued to grow, and the ruler of Lu became as insignificant as a minor noble, even weaker than the households of the Three Huan families.
In the 13th year (454 BCE), the three families of Han, Zhao, and Wei in Jin destroyed the Zhiguo state, dividing its land among themselves.
In the 37th year (429 BCE), Duke Dao passed away, and his son Jia succeeded him as Duke Yuan. In the 21st year of Duke Yuan’s reign (408 BCE), he passed away, and his son Xian succeeded him as Duke Mu. Duke Mu ruled for 33 years (376 BCE) until his death, and his son Fen succeeded him as Duke Gong. Duke Gong ruled for 22 years (353 BCE) before his death, and his son Tun succeeded him as Duke Kang. Duke Kang ruled for 9 years (344 BCE) until his death, and his son Yan succeeded him as Duke Jing. Duke Jing ruled for 29 years (315 BCE) until his death, and his son Shu succeeded him as Duke Ping. During this time, all six states declared themselves kings.
In the 12th year of Duke Ping’s reign (303 BCE), King Hui of Qin passed away. In the 20th year (296 BCE), Duke Ping passed away, and his son Jia succeeded him as Duke Wen. In the 1st year of Duke Wen’s reign (295 BCE), King Huai of Chu died in the state of Qin. In the 23rd year (273 BCE), Duke Wen passed away, and his son Chou succeeded him as Duke Qing.
In the 2nd year of Duke Qing’s reign (271 BCE), Qin conquered the Chu capital of Ying and forced King Qing of Chu to relocate his capital to Chen in the east. In the 19th year (254 BCE), Chu attacked Lu, with the battle taking place in Xuzhou. In the 24th year (249 BCE), King Kao of Chu attacked and destroyed the state of Lu. Duke Qing fled, relocating to a small village outside the capital and living as an ordinary citizen. The sacrificial rites of Lu were discontinued. Duke Qing died in Ke City.
From Duke Zhou to Duke Qing, the state of Lu passed through 34 generations.
The Grand Historian said: I have heard that Confucius once said, “The moral condition of the state of Lu has deteriorated to an extreme! Between the Zhun and Si rivers, people dispute endlessly over trivial matters.” Look at the chaos during the reigns of Qingfu, Shuyazi, and Duke Min! The political strife when Duke Yin and Duke Huan were substituted for one another; when Xiangzhong killed his legitimate heir and established a younger one; and when the Meng, Shu, and Ji families, who were originally subjects, personally attacked Duke Zhao, causing him to flee. While they all followed the formalities of politeness and respect, their actual actions were in direct contradiction to these principles.